{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T09:54:09Z","timestamp":1789725249408,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":220,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2012,10,29]],"date-time":"2012-10-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1351468800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Lassa virus (LASV) is the most prominent human pathogen of the Arenaviridae. The virus is transmitted to humans by a rodent reservoir, Mastomys natalensis, and is capable of causing lethal Lassa Fever (LF). LASV has the highest human impact of any of the viral hemorrhagic fevers (with the exception of Dengue Fever) with an estimated several hundred thousand infections annually, resulting in thousands of deaths in Western Africa. The sizeable disease burden, numerous imported cases of LF in non-endemic countries, and the possibility that LASV can be used as an agent of biological warfare make a strong case for vaccine development. Presently there is no licensed vaccine against LF or approved treatment. Recently, several promising vaccine candidates have been developed which can potentially target different groups at risk. The purpose of this manuscript is to review the LASV pathogenesis and immune mechanisms involved in protection. The current status of pre-clinical development of the advanced vaccine candidates that have been tested in non-human primates will be discussed. Major scientific, manufacturing, and regulatory challenges will also be considered.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v4112514","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2012,10,30]],"date-time":"2012-10-30T04:09:59Z","timestamp":1351570199000},"page":"2514-2557","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":54,"title":["Advanced Vaccine Candidates for Lassa Fever"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"4","author":[{"given":"Igor S.","family":"Lukashevich","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medicine, and the Center for Predictive Medicine for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Louisville, Kentucky, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2012,10,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"75","article-title":"Lassa fever","volume":"262","author":"McCormick","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immuno.l"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2007.11.003","article-title":"New opportunities for field research on the pathogenesis and treatment of Lassa fever","volume":"78","author":"Khan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fichet-Calvet, E., and Rogers, D.J. (2009). Risk Maps of Lassa Fever in West Africa. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000388"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Loureiro, M.E., Wilda, M., and Levingston-Macleod, J.M. (2011). Molecular determinants of Arenavirus Z protein homo-oligomerization and L polymerase binding. J. Virol., JVI.05691-05611.","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.05691-11"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.327.7426.1271","article-title":"Lassa fever: epidemiology, clinical features, and social consequences","volume":"327","author":"Richmond","year":"2003","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1607.100146","article-title":"Detection of Lassa Virus","volume":"16","author":"Safronetz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mali. Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2011.0299","article-title":"Genome-wide scans provide evidence for positive selection of genes implicated in Lassa fever","volume":"367","author":"Andersen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Philos. T. R. Soc. B."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06250","article-title":"Genome-wide detection and characterization of positive selection in human populations","volume":"449","author":"Sabeti","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"103","article-title":"Lassa fever vaccine: A review","volume":"3","author":"McCormick","year":"2004","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1921","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1710.10452","article-title":"Novel arenavirus, Zambia","volume":"17","author":"Ishii","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Fauquet, C.M., Mayo, M.A., Maniloff, J., Desselberger, U., and Ball, L.A. (2005). Virus Taxonomy, VIIIth Report of the ICTV, Elsevier\/Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.2174\/138920206778948673","article-title":"Lassa Virus Genome","volume":"7","author":"Lukashevich","year":"2006","journal-title":"Current Genomics"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Fauquet, C.M., Mayo, M.A., Maniloff, J., Desselberger, U., and Ball, L.A. (2005). Virus Taxonomy, VIIIth Report of the ICTV, Elsevier\/Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Andrew King, M.Q., Adams, M.J., Carstens, E.B., and Lefkowitz, E.J. (2012). Family Arenaviridae, Virus Taxonomy, Classification and Nomenclature of Viruses. Ninth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses, Academic Press, Elsevier Inc."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2008.06.001","article-title":"Phylogeny of the genus Arenavirus","volume":"11","author":"Charrel","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2009.03.005","article-title":"Arenavirus genetic diversity and its biological implications","volume":"9","author":"Emonet","year":"2009","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2003.08.016","article-title":"New insights into the evolutionary relationships between arenaviruses provided by comparative analysis of small and large segment sequences","volume":"317","author":"Charrel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6992","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.74.15.6992-7004.2000","article-title":"Genetic diversity among Lassa virus strains","volume":"74","author":"Bowen","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1702(97)01458-5","article-title":"Characterization of arenaviruses using a family-specific primer set for RT-PCR amplification and RFLP analysis. Its potential use for detection of uncharacterized arenaviruses","volume":"49","author":"Lozano","year":"1997","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1006\/mpev.1997.0436","article-title":"Phylogenetic analysis of the Arenaviridae: patterns of virus evolution and evidence for cospeciation between arenaviruses and their rodent hosts","volume":"8","author":"Bowen","year":"1997","journal-title":"Mol. Phylogenet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0605.000504","article-title":"Imported Lassa fever in Germany: molecular characterization of a new Lassa virus strain","volume":"6","author":"Gunther","year":"2000","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2003.09.009","article-title":"Sequence analysis of L RNA of Lassa virus","volume":"318","author":"Vieth","year":"2004","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2006.01.026","article-title":"Phylogeny and evolution of old world arenaviruses","volume":"350","author":"Emonet","year":"2006","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"1","article-title":"Molecular phylogeny of the Arenaviridae","volume":"262","author":"Clegg","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e37068","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0037068","article-title":"The Impact of Human Conflict on the Genetics of Mastomys natalensis and Lassa Virus in West Africa","volume":"7","author":"Lalis","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"75","article-title":"Lassa fever","volume":"262","author":"McCormick","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"5","article-title":"Experimental studies of arenaviral hemorrhagic fevers","volume":"134","author":"Peters","year":"1987","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(85)92175-0","article-title":"Identification of Ippy as a Lassa-fever-related virus","volume":"1","author":"Swanepoel","year":"1985","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"873","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(85)92233-0","article-title":"Comparison of Lassa, Mobala, and Ippy virus reactions by immunofluorescence test","volume":"1","author":"Meunier","year":"1985","journal-title":"Lancet."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1159\/000149344","article-title":"An arenavirus isolated from wild-caught rodents (Pramys species) in the Central African Republic","volume":"19","author":"Gonzalez","year":"1983","journal-title":"Intervirol."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"441","article-title":"Isolation of an arenavirus closely related to lassa virus from rodents","volume":"55","author":"Wulff","year":"1977","journal-title":"Bull. WHO."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1291","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1981.30.1291","article-title":"Recovery of a Lassa-Related Arenavirus in Zimbabwe","volume":"30","author":"Johnson","year":"1981","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(85)90242-1","article-title":"Antibodies to Lassa and Lassa-like viruses in man and mammals in the Central African Republic","volume":"79","author":"Georges","year":"1985","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(79)90659-7","article-title":"Protection of rhesus monkeys from Lassa virus by immunisation with closely related Arenavirus","volume":"2","author":"Kiley","year":"1979","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/146.3.360","article-title":"Experimental infection of rhesus monkeys with Lassa virus and a closely related arenavirus, Mozambique virus","volume":"146","author":"Walker","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"103","article-title":"Lassa fever vaccine","volume":"3","author":"McCormick","year":"2004","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"25","article-title":"Mammalian reservoirs of arenaviruses","volume":"262","author":"Ruedas","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1983.32.829","article-title":"Case-control study of Mastomys natalensis and humans in Lassa virus-infected households in Sierra Leone","volume":"32","author":"Keenlyside","year":"1983","journal-title":"Am. J.Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1089\/15303660160025912","article-title":"Lassa fever in Guinea: II. Distribution and prevalence of Lassa virus infection in small mammals","volume":"1","author":"Demby","year":"2001","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"651","article-title":"Lassa virus infection of Mastomy natalensis in Sierra Leone. Gros and microscopical findings in infected and uninfected animals","volume":"52","author":"Demartini","year":"1975","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2007.02.008","article-title":"Genetic identification of Kodoko virus, a novel arenavirus of the African pigmy mouse (Mus Nannomys minutoides) in West Africa","volume":"364","author":"Lecompte","year":"2007","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1598","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1510.090211","article-title":"Nosocomial outbreak of novel arenavirus infection, southern Africa","volume":"15","author":"Paweska","year":"2009","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1000455","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000455","article-title":"Genetic Detection and Characterization of Lujo Virus, a New Hemorrhagic Fever-Associated Arenavirus from Southern Africa","volume":"4","author":"Briese","year":"2009","journal-title":"PLoS. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1315","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.017798-0","article-title":"Genomic and phylogenetic characterization of Merino Walk virus, a novel arenavirus isolated in South Africa","volume":"91","author":"Palacios","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20893","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0020893","article-title":"Novel Arenavirus Sequences in Hylomyscus sp. and Mus (Nannomys) setulosus from Co\u00b4te d'Ivoire: Implications for Evolution of Arenaviruses in Africa","volume":"6","author":"Allali","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stenglein, M.D., Sanders, C., and Kistler, A.L. (2012). Identification, Characterization, and In Vitro Culture of Highly Divergent Arenaviruses from Boa Constrictors and Annulated Tree Boas: Candidate Etiological Agents for Snake Inclusion Body Disease. mBio, 3.","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00180-12"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12518","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.05091-11","article-title":"Cross-species analysis of the replication complex of Old World arenaviruses reveals two sites in nucleoprotein involved in L protein function","volume":"85","author":"Kerber","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6822(92)90514-P","article-title":"Generation of reassortants between African arenaviruses","volume":"188","author":"Lukashevich","year":"1992","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"146","article-title":"The isolation and characteristics of reassortants between the Lassa and Mopeia arenaviruses","volume":"36","author":"Lukashevich","year":"1991","journal-title":"Vopr. Virusol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2093","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1990.03450160063030","article-title":"Acute sensorineural deafness in Lassa fever","volume":"264","author":"Cummins","year":"1990","journal-title":"JAMA."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"1","article-title":"A fatal case of Lassa Fever in London, January 2009","volume":"14","author":"Kitching","year":"2009","journal-title":"EUROSURVEI L LANCE"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1586\/eri.10.142","article-title":"Pathogenesis of arenavirus hemorrhagic fevers","volume":"9","author":"Moraz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2006.02.002","article-title":"Role of interferons in the control of Lassa virus replication in human dendritic cells and macrophages","volume":"8","author":"Baize","year":"2006","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2861","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.172.5.2861","article-title":"Lassa virus infection of human dendritic cells and macrophages is productive but fails to activate cells","volume":"172","author":"Baize","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baize, S., Marianneau, P., and Loth, P. (2009). Early and strong immune responses are associated with control of viral replication and recovery in Lassa virus-infected cynomolgus monkeys. J. Virol., JVI.01948-01908.","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01948-08"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7216","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.06508-11","article-title":"Pathogenic Old World Arenaviruses Inhibit TLR2\/Mal-Dependent Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines in vitro","volume":"86","author":"Hayes","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1096-9071(199912)59:4<552::AID-JMV21>3.0.CO;2-A","article-title":"Lassa and Mopeia virus replication in human monocytes\/macrophages and in endothelial cells: different effects on IL-8 and TNF-a gene expression","volume":"59","author":"Lukashevich","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1713","DOI":"10.1086\/320722","article-title":"Low levels of interleukin-8 and interferon-inducible protein-10 in serum are associated with fatal infections in acute Lassa fever","volume":"183","author":"Mahanty","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2797","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.170.6.2797","article-title":"Cutting Edge: Impairment of Dendritic Cells and Adaptive Immunity by Ebola and Lassa Viruses","volume":"170","author":"Mahanty","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2003.12.013","article-title":"Old and New World arenaviruses share a highly conserved epitope in the fusion domain of the glycoprotein 2, which is recognized by Lassa virus-specific human CD4+ T-cell clones","volume":"321","author":"Meulen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2186","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.74.5.2186-2192.2000","article-title":"Characterization of human CD4+ T-cell clones recognizing conserved and variable epitopes of the Lassa virus nucleoprotein","volume":"74","author":"Badusche","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(85)90386-4","article-title":"Endemic Lassa fever in Liberia. III. Characterization of Lassa virus isolates","volume":"79","author":"Jahrling","year":"1985","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"349","article-title":"Pathologic and virologic study of fatal Lassa fever in man","volume":"107","author":"Walker","year":"1982","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"389","article-title":"Clinical observations in 42 patients with Lassa fever","volume":"31","author":"Knobloch","year":"1980","journal-title":"Tropenmed Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1986.35.401","article-title":"Lassa virus hepatitis: a study of fatal Lassa fever in humans","volume":"35","author":"McCormick","year":"1986","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1142","article-title":"Exotic emerging viral diseases: progress and challenges","volume":"10","author":"Geisberg","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nature Medicine"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1996.55.661","article-title":"Hunting of peridomestic rodents and consumption of their meat as possible risk factors for rodent-to-human transmission of Lassa virus in the Republic of Guinea","volume":"55","author":"Lukashevich","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6034","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00100-08","article-title":"Basolateral Entry and Release of New and Old World Arenaviruses from Human Airway Epithelia","volume":"82","author":"Dylla","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3178","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02240-09","article-title":"Viral Protein Determinants of Lassa Virus Entry and Release from Polarized Epithelial Cells","volume":"84","author":"Schlie","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2009.02.042","article-title":"Receptor binding and cell entry of Old World arenaviruses reveal novel aspects of virus-host interaction","volume":"387","author":"Kunz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3228","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01711-08","article-title":"Characterization of Lassa Virus Cell Entry and Neutralization with Lassa Virus Pseudoparticles","volume":"83","author":"Cosset","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.2206","article-title":"Hemorrhagic fever occurs after intravenous, but not after intragastric, inoculation of rhesus macaques with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus","volume":"67","author":"Lukashevich","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"Saluzzo, J.F., and Dodet, B. (1999). Factors in Emergence and Control of Rodent-borne Viral Diseases (Hantaviral and Arenal Diseases) 1999, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198601023140104","article-title":"Lassa fever. Effective therapy with ribavirin","volume":"314","author":"McCormick","year":"1986","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salvato, M.S. (1993). The Arenaviridae, Plenum Press.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-3028-2"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1038","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1982.31.1038","article-title":"A Pathology of Lassa virus infection in the rhesus monkey","volume":"31","author":"Callis","year":"1982","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/141.5.580","article-title":"Lassa virus infection of rhesus monkeys: pathogenesis and treatment with ribavirin","volume":"141","author":"Jahrling","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1985.34.999","article-title":"Kinetic study of platelets and fibrinogen in Lassa virus-infected monkeys and early pathologic events in Mopeia virus-infected monkeys","volume":"34","author":"Lange","year":"1985","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1024","DOI":"10.1160\/TH09-06-0357","article-title":"The role of the vascular endothelium in arenavirus haemorrhagic fevers","volume":"102","author":"Kunz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Thromb. Haemost"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1727","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.77.3.1727-1737.2003","article-title":"Arenavirus-mediated liver pathology: acute lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection of rhesus macaques is characterized by high-level interleukin-6 expression and hepatocyte proliferation","volume":"77","author":"Lukashevich","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2319","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-004-0385-9","article-title":"LCMV-mediated hepatitis in rhesus macaques: WE but not ARM strain activates hepatocytes and induces liver regeneration","volume":"149","author":"Lukashevich","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5890","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01948-08","article-title":"Early and Strong Immune Responses Are Associated with Control of Viral Replication and Recovery in Lassa Virus-Infected Cynomolgus Monkeys","volume":"83","author":"Baize","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8293","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02120-10","article-title":"Human Dendritic Cells Infected with the Nonpathogenic Mopeia Virus Induce Stronger T-Cell Responses than Those Infected with Lassa Virus","volume":"85","author":"Pannetier","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6482","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02876-06","article-title":"Lassa Virus Infection in Experimentally Infected Marmosets: Liver Pathology and Immunophenotypic Alterations in Target Tissues","volume":"81","author":"Carrion","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2011.07.015","article-title":"Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) infection of macaques: A model for Lassa fever","volume":"92","author":"Zapata","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"822","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.200425730","article-title":"MyD88 is critical for the development of innate and adaptive immunity during acute lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection","volume":"35","author":"Zhou","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1625","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01770-08","article-title":"MyD88 Intrinsically Regulates CD4 T-Cell Responses","volume":"83","author":"Zhou","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2079","DOI":"10.1126\/science.282.5396.2079","article-title":"Identification of -dystroglycan as a receptor for lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus and Lassa fever virus","volume":"282","author":"Cao","year":"1998","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14282","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.22.14282-14296.2005","article-title":"Posttranslational Modification of {alpha}-Dystroglycan, the Cellular Receptor for Arenaviruses, by the Glycosyltransferase LARGE Is Critical for Virus Bindin","volume":"79","author":"Kunz","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2010.11.023","article-title":"Decoding arenavirus pathogenesis: Essential roles for alpha-dystroglycan-virus interactions and the immune response","volume":"411","author":"Oldstone","year":"2011","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2713","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.2008\/004721-0","article-title":"Post-translational modification of \u03b1-dystroglycan is not critical for lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus receptor function in vivo","volume":"89","author":"Imperiali","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2067","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.06451-11","article-title":"Identification of cell surface molecules involved in dystroglycan-independent Lassa virus cell entry","volume":"86","author":"Shimojima","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Virol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shimojima, M., and Kawaoka, Y. (2012). Cell surface molecules involved in infection mediated by lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus glycoprotein. J. Vet. Med. Sci.","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.12-0176"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(87)90767-7","article-title":"Vaccinia recombinant expressing Lassa-virus internal nucleocapsid protein protects guinea pigs against Lassa fever","volume":"2","author":"Clegg","year":"1987","journal-title":"Lancet."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/155.3.456","article-title":"Clinical virology of Lassa fever in hospitalized patient","volume":"155","author":"Johnson","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11677","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.75.23.11677-11685.2001","article-title":"Individual and bivalent vaccines based on alphavirus replicons protect guinea pigs against infection with Lassa and Ebola viruses","volume":"75","author":"Pushko","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.1890370102","article-title":"Inactivated Lassa virus elicits a non protective immune response in rhesus monkeys","volume":"31","author":"McCormick","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.1890400308","article-title":"Lassa virus activity in Guinea: distribution of human antiviral antibody defined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay with recombinant antigen","volume":"40","author":"Lukashevich","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2670","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.38.7.2670-2677.2000","article-title":"Diagnosis and Clinical Virology of Lassa Fever as Evaluated by Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay, Indirect Fluorescent-Antibody Test, and Virus Isolation","volume":"38","author":"Bausch","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Branco, L.M., Grove, J.N., Boisen, M.L., Shaffer, J.G., Goba, A., Fullah, M., Momoh, M., Grant, D.S., and Garry, R.F. (2011). Emerging trends in Lassa fever: redefining the role of immunoglobulin M and inflammation in diagnosing acute infection. Virol. J., 8.","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-8-478"},{"key":"ref_101","first-page":"276","article-title":"A trial to produce an inactivated Lassa fever vaccine","volume":"38","author":"Potryvaeva","year":"1993","journal-title":"Vopr Virusol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-7-279","article-title":"Lassa virus-like particles displaying all major immunological determinants as a vaccine candidate for Lassa hemorrhagic fever","volume":"7","author":"Branco","year":"2010","journal-title":"Virology J."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1038\/nri1391","article-title":"Toll-like receptor signalling","volume":"4","author":"Akira","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coi.2008.01.002","article-title":"MDA5\/RIG-I and virus recognition","volume":"20","author":"Takeuchi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2443","DOI":"10.3390\/v2112443","article-title":"Inhibition of the Type I Interferon Antiviral Response During Arenavirus Infection","volume":"2","author":"Borrow","year":"2010","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.1586\/erv.09.57","article-title":"Innate immune control of nucleic acid-based vaccine immunogenicity","volume":"8","author":"Koyama","year":"2009","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Vaccines."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1659","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001659","article-title":"Jun\u00edn Virus Infection Activates the Type I Interferon Pathway in a RIG-I-Dependent Manner","volume":"6","author":"Huang","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop. Dis."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2032","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0002032","article-title":"Processing of Genome 5\u2032 Termini as a Strategy of Negative-Strand RNA Viruses to Avoid RIG-I-Dependent Interferon Induction","volume":"3","author":"Habjan","year":"2008","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2012.04.016","article-title":"Toll-like Receptor 7 Is Required for Effective Adaptive Immune Responses that Prevent Persistent Virus Infection","volume":"11","author":"Walsh","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2012.04.017","article-title":"Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells Are Productively Infected and Activated through TLR-7 Early after Arenavirus Infection","volume":"11","author":"Macal","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.040857-0","article-title":"ISCOMATRIX: a novel adjuvant for use in prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines against infectious diseases","volume":"61","author":"Becher","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Medical Microbiology"},{"key":"ref_112","first-page":"1223","article-title":"Lassa Fever Virus Peptides Predicted by Computational Analysis Induce Epitope-Specific Cytotoxic-T-Lymphocyte Responses in HLA-A2.1 Transgenic Mice","volume":"12","author":"Boesen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8351","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00896-06","article-title":"Identification of Protective Lassa Virus Epitopes That Are Restricted by HLA-A2","volume":"80","author":"Botten","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9947","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00672-10","article-title":"A Multivalent Vaccination Strategy for the Prevention of Old World Arenavirus Infection in Humans","volume":"84","author":"Botten","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI25608","article-title":"Peptide vaccination of mice immune to LCMV or vaccinia virus causes serious CD8+ T cell-mediated, TNF-dependent immunopathology","volume":"116","author":"Liu","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Invest."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1128\/mr.58.3.491-562.1994","article-title":"The alphaviruses: gene expression, replication, and evolution","volume":"58","author":"Strauss","year":"1994","journal-title":"Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vander Veen, R.L., Hank Harris, D.L., and Kurt, I. (2012). Kamrud. Alphavirus replicon vaccines. Animal Health Res. Rev.","DOI":"10.1017\/S1466252312000011"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10297","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0010297","article-title":"Comparison of the Immune Responses Induced by Chimeric Alphavirus-Vectored and Formalin-Inactivated Alum-Precipitated Measles Vaccines in Mice","volume":"5","author":"Bergen","year":"2010","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2010.11.024","article-title":"Alphavirus replicon-based adjuvants enhance the immunogenicity and effectiveness of Fluzone\u00ae in rhesus macaques","volume":"29","author":"Carroll","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3722","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0600287103","article-title":"Mucosal and systemic adjuvant activity of alphavirus replicon particles","volume":"7","author":"Thompson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.181.1.574","article-title":"Nonmucosal alphavirus vaccination stimulates a mucosal inductive environment in the peripheral draining lymph node","volume":"181","author":"Thompson","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2008.05.046","article-title":"Alphavirus replicon particles acting as adjuvants promote CD8+ T cell responses to co-delivered antigen","volume":"26","author":"Thompson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1997.8878","article-title":"Replicon-helper systems from attenuated Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus: expression of heterologous genes in vitro and immunization against heterologous pathogens in vivo","volume":"2","author":"Pushko","year":"1997","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1023\/B:BREA.0000004373.09678.bb","article-title":"Venezuelan equine encephalitis replicon immunization overcomes intrinsic tolerance and elicits effective anti-tumor immunity to the 'self' tumor-associated antigen, neu in a rat mammary tumor model","volume":"82","author":"Nelson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_125","unstructured":"Johnston, R., Davis, N., Smith, J., Pushko, P., Parker, M., and Ludwig, G. (2007). Alphavirus RNA replicon systems. (7,235,235), U.S. Patent, Alphavax IP."},{"key":"ref_126","unstructured":"Pushko, P. (2006). Vector platforms derived from the alphavirus vaccines. U.S. Patent Application No. 2006\/0198854."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2005.01.019","article-title":"Evaluating the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of a DNA vaccine encoding Lassa virus nucleoprotein","volume":"335","author":"Nelson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2011.09.005","article-title":"Progress in recombinant DNA-derived vaccines for Lassa virus and filoviruses","volume":"162","author":"Altamura","year":"2011","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4303","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.63.10.4303-4310.1989","article-title":"Molecular analyses of a five-amino-acid cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) epitope: an immunodominant region which induces nonreciprocal CTL cross-reactivity","volume":"63","author":"Whitton","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.1830210513","article-title":"Major histocompatibility complex binding and T cell recognition of a viral nonapeptide containing a minimal tetrapeptide","volume":"21","author":"Schulz","year":"1991","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1543","DOI":"10.1016\/S0264-410X(99)00439-9","article-title":"Murine immune responses to mucosally delivered Salmonella expressing Lassa fever virus nucleoprotein","volume":"18","author":"Djavani","year":"2000","journal-title":"Vaccine."},{"key":"ref_132","first-page":"103","article-title":"Mucosal immunization with Salmonella typhimurium expressing Lassa virus nucleocapsid protein cross-protects mice from lethal challenge with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus","volume":"4","author":"Djavani","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Hum. Virol."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.67.1.348-352.1993","article-title":"A \"string-of-beads\" vaccine, comprising linked minigenes, confers protection from lethal-dose virus challenge","volume":"67","author":"Whitton","year":"1993","journal-title":"Journal of Virology"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1586\/erv.11.188","article-title":"Technologies for enhanced efficacy of DNA vaccines","volume":"11","author":"Saade","year":"2012","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.1635","article-title":"Raul Andino. Rationalizing the development of live attenuated virus vaccines","volume":"28","author":"Lauring","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_136","first-page":"75","article-title":"Lassa fever","volume":"262","author":"McCormick","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13934","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.22.13934-13942.2005","article-title":"A live attenuated vaccine for Lassa fever made by reassortment of Lassa and Mopeia viruses","volume":"79","author":"Lukashevich","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.4161\/hv.7.6.15198","article-title":"Argentine hemorrhagic fever vaccines","volume":"7","author":"Ambrosio","year":"2011","journal-title":"Human Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1702(88)90033-0","article-title":"Construction of a recombinant vaccinia virus expressing the Lassa virus glycoprotein gene and protection of guinea pigs from a lethal Lassa virus infection","volume":"9","author":"Auperin","year":"1988","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6777","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.74.15.6777-6783.2000","article-title":"Effective Vaccine for Lassa Fever","volume":"74","author":"Hutwagner","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5458","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.78.10.5458-5465.2004","article-title":"Properties of Replication-Competent Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Vectors Expressing Glycoproteins of Filoviruses and Arenaviruses","volume":"78","author":"Garbutt","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e183","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0020183","article-title":"Development of a new vaccine for the prevention of Lassa Fever","volume":"2","author":"Geisbert","year":"2005","journal-title":"PLoS Medicine"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2008.07.057","article-title":"Safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy of the ML29 vaccine for Lassa fever in small non-human primates","volume":"26","author":"Lukashevich","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2005.12.001","article-title":"A recombinant Yellow Fever 17D vaccine expressing Lassa virus glycoproteins","volume":"345","author":"Bredenbeek","year":"2006","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2010.11.079","article-title":"Yellow fever 17D-vectored vaccines expressing Lassa virus GP1 and GP2 glycoproteins provide protection against fatal disease in guinea pigs","volume":"29","author":"Jiang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6822(89)90525-4","article-title":"Protection of guinea pigs from Lassa fever by vaccinia virus recombinants expressing the nucleoprotein or the envelope glycoproteins of Lassa virus","volume":"171","author":"Morrison","year":"1989","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.86.1.317","article-title":"Protection of rhesus monkeys from fatal Lassa fever by vaccination with a recombinant vaccinia virus containing the Lassa virus glycoprotein gene","volume":"86","author":"McCormick","year":"1989","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tani, H., Shigeru, M., and Yoshiharu, M. (2011). Development and applications of VSV vectors based on cell tropism. Front Microbiol.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2011.00272"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jir349","article-title":"Recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus-based vaccines against Ebola and Marburg virus infections","volume":"204","author":"Geisbert","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1586\/erv.10.152","article-title":"Progress in filovirus vaccine development: evaluating the potential for clinical use","volume":"10","author":"Falzarano","year":"2011","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Vaccines."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0020183","article-title":"Development of a new vaccine for the prevention of Lassa fever","volume":"2","author":"Geisbert","year":"2005","journal-title":"PLoS Med."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.2001.0874","article-title":"The Whitewater Arroyo virus: natural evidence for genetic recombination among Tacaribe serocomplex viruses (family Arenaviridae)","volume":"283","author":"Charrel","year":"2001","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.59.2.363-368.1986","article-title":"Genetic reassortants of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus: unexpected disease and mechanism of pathogenesis","volume":"59","author":"Riviere","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1980.tb27960.x","article-title":"Recombination and gene coding asignment of bunyaviruses and arenaviruses","volume":"354","author":"Bishop","year":"1980","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.55.3.704-709.1985","article-title":"Genetic mapping of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus pathogenicity: virulence in guinea pigs is associated with the L RNA segment","volume":"55","author":"Riviere","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.2001.1127","article-title":"Reassortant analysis of guinea pig virulence of Pichinde virus variants","volume":"290","author":"Zhang","year":"2001","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1007\/s11262-006-0050-3","article-title":"Molecular characterization of a reassortant virus derived from Lassa and Mopeia viruses","volume":"34","author":"Moshkoff","year":"2007","journal-title":"Virus Genes"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4020","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02556-10","article-title":"Efficient rescue of recombinant Lassa virus reveals the influence of S segment non-coding regions on virus replication and virulence","volume":"85","author":"Albarino","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12414","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01374-06","article-title":"Mutational Analysis of the Lassa Virus Promoter","volume":"80","author":"Hass","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1184","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.77.2.1184-1194.2003","article-title":"Characterization of the Genomic Promoter of the Prototypic Arenavirus Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus","volume":"77","author":"Perez","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.78.3.1129-1138.2004","article-title":"Bunyamwera Bunyavirus RNA Synthesis Requires Cooperation of 3'- and 5'-Terminal Sequences","volume":"78","author":"Barr","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-78-3-547","article-title":"The Lassa fever virus L gene: nucleotide sequence, comparison, and precipitation of a predicted 250 kDa protein with monospecific antiserum","volume":"78","author":"Lukashevich","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1934","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01657-09","article-title":"An N-Terminal Region of Lassa Virus L Protein Plays a Critical Role in Transcription but Not Replication of the Virus Genome","volume":"84","author":"Lelke","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2396","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1016404108","article-title":"Structure of the Lassa virus nucleoprotein reveals a dsRNA-specific 3\u2032 to 5\u2032 exonuclease activity essential for immune suppression","volume":"108","author":"Hastie","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1038\/nature09605","article-title":"Cap binding and immune evasion revealed by Lassa nucleoprotein structure","volume":"468","author":"Qi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11330","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00763-09","article-title":"Identification of Amino Acid Residues Critical for the Anti-Interferon Activity of the Nucleoprotein of the Prototypic Arenavirus Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus","volume":"83","author":"Emonet","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12696","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00882-07","article-title":"Differential inhibition of type I interferon induction by arenavirus nucleoproteins","volume":"81","author":"Giannakas","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9192","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00555-06","article-title":"Inhibition of the Type I Interferon Response by the Nucleoprotein of the Prototypic Arenavirus Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus","volume":"80","author":"Zuniga","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2012.01.003","article-title":"Hiding the evidence: two strategies for innate immune evasion by hemorrhagic fever viruses","volume":"2","author":"Hastie","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-2736(92)90360-X","article-title":"The fusion of artificial lipid membranes induced by the synthetic arenavirus 'fusion peptide'","volume":"1110","author":"Glushakova","year":"1992","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2320","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.82950-0","article-title":"Amino acids from both N-terminal hydrophobic regions of the Lassa virus envelope glycoprotein GP-2 are critical for pH-dependent membrane fusion and infectivity","volume":"88","author":"Klewitz","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moshkoff, D., Salvato, M.S., and Lukashevich, I.S. (2006). Molecular characterization of a reassortant virus derived from Lassa and Mopeia viruses. Virus Genes.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11262-006-0050-3"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1038\/nprot.2009.2","article-title":"Protein structure prediction on the Web: a case study using the Phyre server","volume":"4","author":"Kelley","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature Protocols"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13457","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.05616-11","article-title":"Substitutions in the Glycoprotein (GP) of the Candid#1 Vaccine Strain of Junin Virus Increase Dependence on Human Transferrin Receptor 1 for Entry and Destabilize the Metastable Conformation of GP","volume":"85","author":"Reignier","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Virology"},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10404","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00856-11","article-title":"The Major Determinant of Attenuation in Mice of the Candid1 Vaccine for Argentine Hemorrhagic Fever Is Located in the G2 Glycoprotein Transmembrane Domain","volume":"85","author":"Bird","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Virology"},{"key":"ref_176","first-page":"27","article-title":"pH-dependent fusion of eukaryotic cells, caused by arenaviruses, pathogenic and non-pathogenic for humans","volume":"7-8","author":"Glushakova","year":"1992","journal-title":"Mol Gen Mikrobiol Virusol."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.1177\/0300985810372506","article-title":"Establishing Efficacy of Human Products Using Animals","volume":"47","author":"Snoy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Veterinary Pathology Online"},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1445","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2011.12.134","article-title":"Evaluation of Lassa virus vaccine immunogenicity in a CBA\/J-ML29 mouse model","volume":"30","author":"Goicocheaa","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_179","first-page":"598","article-title":"Lassa and Mozambique viruses: cross protection in experiments on mice and action of immunosuppressants on experimental infections","volume":"34","author":"Barkar","year":"1989","journal-title":"Vopr. Virusol."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4093","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2007.02.038","article-title":"A ML29 reassortant virus protects guinea pigs against a distantly-related Nigerian strain of Lassa virus and can provide sterilizing immunity","volume":"25","author":"Carrion","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lukashevich, I.S., Carrion, R., and Salvato, M.S. (2008). Safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy of the ML29 reassortant vaccine for Lassa fever in small non-human primates. Vaccine, In Press, Corrected Proof.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2008.05.684"},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zapata, J.C., Poonia, B., Bryant, J., Davis, H., Ateh, E., George, L., Crasta, O., Zhang, Y., Slezak, T., Crystal Jaing, C., Pauza, D., Goicochea, M., Moshkoff, D., Lukashevich, I.S., and Salvato, M.S. (2012). An attenuated Lassa vaccine in SIV-infected rhesus macaques does not persist or cause arenavirus disease but does elicit Lassa virus-specific immunity. Virology J, submitted.","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-10-52"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7960","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00536-07","article-title":"Early blood profiles of virus infection in a monkey model for Lassa fever","volume":"81","author":"Djavani","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trstmh.2007.06.013","article-title":"Acute viscerotropic disease following vaccination against yellow fever","volume":"101","author":"Hayes","year":"2007","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6077","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2008.09.009","article-title":"Adverse event reports following yellow fever vaccination","volume":"26","author":"Lindsey","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.00369-09","article-title":"Clinical and Immunological Insights on Severe, Adverse Neurotropic and Viscerotropic Disease following 17D Yellow Fever Vaccination","volume":"17","author":"Silva","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Vaccine Immunol."},{"key":"ref_187","unstructured":"Barrett, A.D.T., and Stanberry, L.R. (2009). Yellow Fever, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.329","article-title":"Towards a human Lassa fever vaccine","volume":"11","author":"McCormick","year":"2001","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2009.09.098","article-title":"Preclinical and clinical development of YFV 17D-based chimeric vaccines against dengue, West Nile and Japanese encephalitis viruses","volume":"28","author":"Guy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1179","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20051352","article-title":"Live attenuated yellow fever 17D infects human DCs and allows for presentation of endogenous and recombinant T cell epitopes","volume":"202","author":"Longman","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"873","DOI":"10.1006\/jmbi.2001.5258","article-title":"Surface expression of an immunodominant malaria protein B cell epitope by yellow fever virus","volume":"315","author":"Bonaldo","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8602","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.13.8602-8613.2005","article-title":"Attenuation of Recombinant Yellow Fever 17D Viruses Expressing Foreign Protein Epitopes at the Surface","volume":"79","author":"Bonaldo","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20041526","article-title":"Yellow fever 17D as a vaccine vector for microbial CTL epitopes: protection in a rodent malaria model","volume":"201","author":"Tao","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stoyanov, C.T., Boscardin, S.B., and Deroubaix, S. (2010). Immunogenicity and protective efficacy of a recombinant yellow fever vaccine against the murine malarial parasite Plasmodium yoelii. Vaccine, In Press, Corrected Proof.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2010.04.071"},{"key":"ref_195","unstructured":"(2010). Editorial. YF17D vector for Lassa fever vaccine. International Innovation, 77\u201379."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-4-115","article-title":"Construction and characterization of recombinant flaviviruses bearing insertions between E and NS1 genes","volume":"4","author":"Bonaldo","year":"2007","journal-title":"Virology Journal"},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3699","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02255-09","article-title":"Recombinant Yellow Fever Vaccine Virus 17D Expressing Simian Immunodeficiency Virus SIVmac239 Gag Induces SIV-Specific CD8+ T-Cell Responses in Rhesus Macaques","volume":"84","author":"Bonaldo","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4644","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2010.04.071","article-title":"Immunogenicity and protective efficacy of a recombinant yellow fever vaccine against the murine malarial parasite Plasmodium yoelii","volume":"28","author":"Stoyanov","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2941","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2006.06.082","article-title":"High stability of yellow fever 17D-204 vaccine: A 12-year restrospective analysis of large-scale production","volume":"25","author":"Barban","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biologicals.2005.03.009","article-title":"Safety testing for neurovirulence of novel live, attenuated flavivirus vaccines: Infant mice provide an accurate surrogate for the test in monkeys","volume":"33","author":"Monath","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biologicals"},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1742","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.74.4.1742-1751.2000","article-title":"Chimeric Yellow Fever Virus 17D-Japanese Encephalitis Virus Vaccine: Dose-Response Effectiveness and Extended Safety Testing in Rhesus Monkeys","volume":"74","author":"Monath","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/155.3.465","article-title":"Physiological and immunologic disturbances associated with shock in a primate model of Lassa fever","volume":"155","author":"Mitchell","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_203","unstructured":"Richman, D.D., and Whitley, R.J. (1997). Arenaviruses, Churchill Livingstone."},{"key":"ref_204","first-page":"523","article-title":"Comparative pathology of Lassa virus infection in monkeys, guinea-pigs, and Mastomys natalensis","volume":"52","author":"Walker","year":"1975","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-8-205","article-title":"Pathogenesis of lassa fever in cynomolgus macaques","volume":"8","author":"Hensley","year":"2011","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.4161\/hv.7.6.14981","article-title":"Vaccines against viral hemorrhagic fevers: non-human primate models","volume":"7","author":"Carrion","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccin."},{"key":"ref_207","first-page":"383","article-title":"Marmoset model commonly used in biomedical research","volume":"53","author":"Mansfield","year":"2003","journal-title":"Comp. Medicine"},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2007.10.002","article-title":"Animal models of highly pathogenic RNA viral infections: Hemorrhagic fever viruses","volume":"78","author":"Gowen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2272","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.031229-0","article-title":"Common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) as a primate model of dengue virus infection: development of high levels of viraemia and demonstration of protective immunity","volume":"92","author":"Omatsu","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_210","first-page":"43","article-title":"Use of guinea pigs for assessing the efficacy of vaccines against Lassa fever","volume":"48","author":"Firsova","year":"2003","journal-title":"Vopr Virusol."},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1000836","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000836","article-title":"T cell-dependence of Lassa fever pathogenesis","volume":"6","author":"Flatz","year":"2010","journal-title":"PLoS Pathogen."},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3389","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.06284-11","article-title":"Functional Interferon System Is Required for Clearance of Lassa Virus","volume":"86","author":"Yun","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3113","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.180.5.3113","article-title":"Absence of CTL Responses to Early Viral Antigens Facilitates Viral Persistence","volume":"180","author":"Schildknecht","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12093","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00429-11","article-title":"Lassa virus nucleoprotein mutants generated by reverse genetics induce robust type I IFN response in human dendritic cells and macrophages","volume":"85","author":"Carnec","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marzi, A., Feldmann, H., Geisbert, T.W., and Falzarano, D. (2011). Vesicular Stomatitis Virus-Based Vaccines for Prophylaxis and Treatment of Filovirus Infections. J. Bioterror. Biodef.","DOI":"10.4172\/2157-2526.S1-004"},{"key":"ref_216","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Appaiahgari, M.B.S.V. (2012). Clinical development of IMOJEV \u00ae - a recombinant Japanese encephalitis chimeric vaccine (JE-CV). Exp. Opin. Biol. Ther.","DOI":"10.1517\/14712598.2012.704908"},{"key":"ref_217","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2011.06.094","article-title":"From research to phase III: Preclinical, industrial and clinical development of the Sanofi Pasteur tetravalent dengue vaccine","volume":"29","author":"Guy","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_218","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"964","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2011.03535.x","article-title":"Ebola and Marburg haemorrhagic fever viruses: major scientific advances, but a relatively minor public health threat for Africa","volume":"17","author":"Leroy","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_219","unstructured":"Barett, A.D.T., and Stanberry, L.R. (2009). Junin (Argentine Hemorrhagic Fever), Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_220","unstructured":"Arboviruses and Related Zoonotic Viruses. Available online:www.cdc.gov\/biosafety\/publications\/bmbl5\/BMBL5_sect_VIII_f.pdf."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/4\/11\/2514\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:53:10Z","timestamp":1760219590000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/4\/11\/2514"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2012,10,29]]},"references-count":220,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2012,11]]}},"alternative-id":["v4112514"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v4112514","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2012,10,29]]}}}