{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T16:33:31Z","timestamp":1791218011017,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":165,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,4]],"date-time":"2013-09-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1378252800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The introduction, dispersal and establishment of West Nile virus in North America were reviewed, focusing on factors that may have enhanced receptivity and enabled the invasion process. The overwintering persistence of this tropical virus within temperate latitudes was unexpected, but was key in the transition from invasion to endemic establishment. The cascade of temporal events allowing sporadic amplification to outbreak levels was discussed within a future perspective.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v5092079","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,4]],"date-time":"2013-09-04T12:31:59Z","timestamp":1378297919000},"page":"2079-2105","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":152,"title":["Ecology of West Nile Virus in North America"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"William","family":"Reisen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, CA 95616, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1940.s1-20.471","article-title":"A neutrophic virus isolated from the blood of a native of Uganda","volume":"20","author":"Smithburn","year":"1940","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop Med. Hyg"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0505.990505","article-title":"West Nile fever\u2014A reemerging mosquito-borne viral disease in Europe","volume":"5","author":"Hubalek","year":"1999","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(02)00368-7","article-title":"West Nile virus","volume":"2","author":"Campbell","year":"2002","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2964","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01963-10","article-title":"Phylogeography of West Nile virus: From the cradle of evolution in Africa to Eurasia, Australia, and the Americas","volume":"85","author":"May","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2001.tb02682.x","article-title":"West Nile virus: Uganda, 1937, to New York City, 1999","volume":"951","author":"Hayes","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2005.07.022","article-title":"Phylogenetic analysis of North American West Nile virus isolates, 2001\u20132004: Evidence for the emergence of a dominant genotype","volume":"342","author":"Davis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(04)01128-4","article-title":"West Nile virus: Where are we now?","volume":"4","author":"Granwehr","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/S0042-6822(03)00150-8","article-title":"Limited evolution of West Nile virus has occurred during its southwesterly spread in the United States","volume":"309","author":"Beasley","year":"2003","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ento.53.103106.093258","article-title":"A Global Perspective on the Epidemiology of West Nile Virus","volume":"53","author":"Kramer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"231","article-title":"The emergence of two flaviviruses: A discussion of the emrgence of Japanese encephalitis virus in Australia and West Nile virus in North America","volume":"8","author":"Mackenzie","year":"2001","journal-title":"Arbo Res. Aust."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9349","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01122-06","article-title":"Pathogenesis of West Nile Virus infection: A balance between virulence, innate and adaptive immunity, and viral evasion","volume":"80","author":"Samuel","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268811000185","article-title":"The virology, epidemiology, and clinical impact of West Nile virus: A decade of advancements in research since its introduction into the Western Hemisphere","volume":"139","author":"Murray","year":"2011","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(07)70030-3","article-title":"West Nile virus","volume":"6","author":"Kramer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1174","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1108.050289b","article-title":"Virology, pathology, and clinical manifestations of West Nile virus disease","volume":"11","author":"Hayes","year":"2005","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1007\/s11940-005-0002-6","article-title":"Neuromuscular manifestations of human west nile virus infection","volume":"7","author":"Leis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Curr. Treat. Options Neurol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0704.017401","article-title":"West Nile virus: A reemerging global pathogen","volume":"7","author":"Petersen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-137-3-200208060-00009","article-title":"West Nile virus: A primer for the clinician","volume":"137","author":"Petersen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.290.4.524","article-title":"West nile virus","volume":"290","author":"Petersen","year":"2003","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1354\/vp.38-4-414","article-title":"Pathologic and immunohistochemical findings in naturally occuring West Nile virus infection in horses","volume":"38","author":"Cantile","year":"2001","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1354\/vp.37-3-208","article-title":"Pathology of fatal West Nile virus infections in native and exotic birds during the 1999 outbreak in New York City, New York","volume":"37","author":"Steele","year":"2000","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1108.050289a","article-title":"Epidemiology and transmission dynamics of West Nile virus disease","volume":"11","author":"Hayes","year":"2005","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-3527(03)61005-5","article-title":"West Nile virus: Epidemiology and ecology in North America","volume":"61","author":"Komar","year":"2003","journal-title":"Adv. Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.3376\/1081-1710-33.2.342","article-title":"Predictable ecology and geography of West Nile virus transmission in the central United States","volume":"33","author":"Peterson","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Vector Ecol."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"223","article-title":"The emergence of West Nile virus in North America: Ecology, epidemiology, and surveillance","volume":"267","author":"Roehrig","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2011.08.013","article-title":"\"Bird biting\" mosquitoes and human disease: A review of the role of Culex pipiens complex mosquitoes in epidemiology","volume":"11","author":"Farajollahi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1201010","article-title":"Globalization, land use, and the invasion of West Nile virus","volume":"334","author":"Kilpatrick","year":"2011","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15066","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1206598109","article-title":"Unifying the spatial epidemiology and molecular evolution of emerging epidemics","volume":"109","author":"Pybus","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0604.000401","article-title":"Migratory birds and spread of West Nile Virus in the Western Hemisphere","volume":"6","author":"Rappole","year":"2000","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47S","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2672.94.s1.6.x","article-title":"Migratory birds and West Nile virus","volume":"94","author":"Rappole","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2001.tb02684.x","article-title":"West Nile virus transmission and ecology in birds","volume":"951","author":"McLean","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.3121\/cmr.1.1.5","article-title":"Birds, migration and emerging zoonoses: West nile virus, lyme disease, influenza A and enteropathogens","volume":"1","author":"Reed","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1641\/0006-3568(2004)054[0393:WNVAW]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"West Nile virus and wildlife","volume":"54","author":"Marra","year":"2004","journal-title":"BioScience"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.1093\/auk\/124.4.1121","article-title":"Ecology of West Nile virus transmission and its impact on birds in the western hemisphere","volume":"124","author":"Kilpatrick","year":"2007","journal-title":"Auk"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1525\/cond.2009.080013","article-title":"Differential impact of West Nile virus on California birds","volume":"111","author":"Wheeler","year":"2009","journal-title":"Condor"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"710","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05829","article-title":"West Nile virus emergence and large-scale declines of North American bird populations","volume":"447","author":"LaDeau","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2001.tb02699.x","article-title":"Structure and seasonality of nearctic Culex pipiens populations","volume":"951","author":"Spielman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2001.tb02707.x","article-title":"Potential North American vectors of West Nile virus","volume":"951","author":"Turell","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"241","article-title":"Potential vectors of West Nile virus in North America","volume":"267","author":"Turell","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1755-0998.2008.02469.x","article-title":"Molecular methods for arthropod bloodmeal identification and applications to ecological and vector-borne disease studies","volume":"9","author":"Kent","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol. Resour."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2333","DOI":"10.1126\/science.286.5448.2333","article-title":"Origin of the West Nile virus responsible for an outbreak of encephalitis in the northeastern United States","volume":"286","author":"Lanciotti","year":"1999","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2009.10.008","article-title":"Present and future arboviral threats","volume":"85","author":"Weaver","year":"2010","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2001.tb02693.x","article-title":"Kunjin virus: An Australian variant of West Nile?","volume":"951","author":"Hall","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(82)90130-4","article-title":"West Nile virus in Pakistan. 1. Sero-epidemiological studies in Punjab Province","volume":"76","author":"Hayes","year":"1982","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Monath, T.P. (1980). St. Louis Encephalitis, American Public Health Association."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(86)90019-2","article-title":"Experimental assessment of the vector competence of Culex (Culex) neavei Theobald with West Nile and Sindbis viruses in South Africa","volume":"80","author":"Jupp","year":"1986","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/7.3.353","article-title":"Quantitative experiments on the vector capability of Culex (Culex) pipiens fatigans Wiedemann with West Nile and Sindbis viruses","volume":"7","author":"Jupp","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1956.5.579","article-title":"A study of the ecology of West Nile virus in Egypt","volume":"5","author":"Taylor","year":"1956","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2007.0266","article-title":"Vector competence of some french Culex and Aedes mosquitoes for west nile virus","volume":"8","author":"Balenghien","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1038\/icb.1984.61","article-title":"The vector competence of Australian Culex annulirostris with Murray Valley encephalitis and Kunjin viruses","volume":"62 (Pt 5)","author":"Kay","year":"1984","journal-title":"Aust. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1982.31.844","article-title":"Vector competence of Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus for Murray Valley encephalitis, Kunjin, and Ross River viruses from Australia","volume":"31","author":"Kay","year":"1982","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"101","article-title":"West Nile virus: The Indian scenario","volume":"118","author":"Paramasivan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"225","article-title":"Experimental studies on the vector potential of certain Culex species to West Nile virus","volume":"106","author":"Ilkal","year":"1997","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(82)90132-8","article-title":"West Nile virus in Pakistan. III. Comparative vector capability of Culex tritaeniorhynchus and eight other species of mosquitoes","volume":"76","author":"Akhter","year":"1982","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(82)90131-6","article-title":"West Nile virus in Pakistan. II. Entomological studies at Changa Manga National Forest, Punjab Province","volume":"76","author":"Reisen","year":"1982","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"309","article-title":"The role of birds in the ecology of West Nile virus in Europe and Africa","volume":"267","author":"Malkinson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(81)90330-8","article-title":"Prevalence of antibodies to Japanese encephalitis and West Nile viruses among wild birds in the Krishna-Godavari Delta, Andhra Pradesh, India","volume":"75","author":"Rodrigues","year":"1981","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1162","DOI":"10.1038\/ng2097","article-title":"A single positively selected West Nile viral mutation confers increased virogenesis in American crows","volume":"39","author":"Brault","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0804.010217","article-title":"Introduction of West Nile virus in the Middle East by Migrating White Storks","volume":"8","author":"Malkinson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1523-1739.2008.00881.x","article-title":"Human impacts on regional avian diversity and abundance","volume":"22","author":"Lepczyk","year":"2008","journal-title":"Conserv. Biol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1989","DOI":"10.1890\/06-1489.1","article-title":"Associations of forest bird species richness with housing and landscape patterns across the USA","volume":"17","author":"Pidgeon","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ecol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1007\/s00442-008-1224-6","article-title":"Avian host community structure and prevalence of West Nile virus in Chicago, Illinois","volume":"159","author":"Loss","year":"2009","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0903.020628","article-title":"Experimental infection of North American birds with the New York 1999 strain of West Nile virus","volume":"9","author":"Komar","year":"2003","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1203.051004","article-title":"Host feeding patterns of Culex mosquitoes and West Nile virus transmission, northeastern United States","volume":"12","author":"Molaei","year":"2006","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2007.77.73","article-title":"Host Feeding pattern of Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae) and its role in transmission of west nile virus in harris county, Texas","volume":"77","author":"Molaei","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1269","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2010.10-0392","article-title":"Vector-host interactions governing epidemiology of West Nile virus in southern california","volume":"83","author":"Molaei","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1452","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001452","article-title":"Mosquito host selection varies seasonally with host availability and mosquito density","volume":"5","author":"Thiemann","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop Dis."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1603\/ME11272","article-title":"Spatial variation in host feeding patterns of Culex tarsalis and the Culex pipiens complex (Diptera: Culicidae) in California","volume":"49","author":"Thiemann","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e34127","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0034127","article-title":"Antecedent avian immunity limits tangential transmission of West Nile virus to humans","volume":"7","author":"Kwan","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"109","article-title":"Avian diversity and West Nile virus: Testing associations between biodiversity and infectious disease risk","volume":"273","author":"Ezenwa","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"1","article-title":"Culex (Culex) pipiens Linnaeus(Diptera: Culicidae): concepts, type designation, and description","volume":"87","author":"Harbach","year":"1985","journal-title":"Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2006.74.284","article-title":"Pathways of expansion and multiple introductions illustrated by large genetic differentiation among worldwide populations of the southern house mosquito","volume":"74","author":"Fonseca","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1957.6.153","article-title":"The distribution of Culex p. pipiens and C.p. quinquefasciatus in North America","volume":"6","author":"Barr","year":"1957","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1603\/033.046.0208","article-title":"Microsatellite characterization of subspecies and their hybrids in Culex pipiens complex (Diptera: Culicidae) mosquitoes along a north-south transect in the central United States","volume":"46","author":"Kothera","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2009.08-0605","article-title":"Effects of latitude and longitude on the population structure of Culex pipiens s.l., vectors of West Nile virus in North America","volume":"81","author":"Edillo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"805","article-title":"A comparison of aboveground and belowground populations of Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae) mosquitoes in Chicago, Illinois, and New York City, New York, using microsatellites","volume":"47","author":"Kothera","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/11.1.95","article-title":"Host-feeding patterns of Florida mosquitoes. 3. Culex (Culex) and Culex (Neoculex)","volume":"11","author":"Edman","year":"1974","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1126\/science.161.3836.67","article-title":"Culex nigripalpus: Seasonal shift in the bird: mammal feeding rates in a mosquito vector of human encephalitis","volume":"161","author":"Edman","year":"1968","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.2307\/4590109","article-title":"St. Louis encephalitis in 1933. Observations on epidemiological features","volume":"73","author":"Lumsden","year":"1958","journal-title":"Public Health Rep."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2001.tb02688.x","article-title":"Epidemic West Nile encephalitis in Romania: Waiting for history to repeat itself","volume":"951","author":"Campbell","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0604.000408","article-title":"Isolation of two strains of West Nile virus during an outbreak in southern Russia, 1999","volume":"6","author":"Lvov","year":"2000","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"85","article-title":"West Nile virus and other zoonotic viruses in Russia: Examples of emerging-reemerging situations","volume":"18","author":"Lvov","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arch. Virol. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-003-1085-1","article-title":"West Nile virus: An overview of its spread in Europe and the Mediterranean basin in contrast to its spread in the Americas","volume":"23","author":"Zeller","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0704.017411","article-title":"Dead crow densities and human cases of West Nile virus, New York State, 2000","volume":"7","author":"Eidson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1603\/ME11286","article-title":"Importance of recrudescent avian infection in West Nile virus overwintering: incomplete antibody neutralization of virus allows infrequent vector infection","volume":"49","author":"Wheeler","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0704.017404","article-title":"West Nile virus isolates from mosquitoes in New York and New Jersey, 1999","volume":"7","author":"Nasci","year":"2001","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0704.017403","article-title":"Serologic evidence for West Nile virus infection in birds in the New York City vicinity during an outbreak in 1999","volume":"7","author":"Komar","year":"2001","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1089\/15303660260613710","article-title":"Early season crow mortality as a sentinel for West Nile virus disease in humans, northeastern United States","volume":"2","author":"Julian","year":"2002","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2008.78.45","article-title":"High subclinical West Nile virus incidence among unvaccinated horses in Northern California associated with low vector abundance","volume":"78","author":"Nielsen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1000092","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000092","article-title":"Temperature, viral genetics, and the transmission of West Nile virus by Culex pipiens mosquitoes","volume":"4","author":"Kilpatrick","year":"2008","journal-title":"Plos Pathog."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2007.77.365","article-title":"A newly emergent genotype of West Nile virus is transmitted earlier and more efficiently by Culex mosquitoes","volume":"77","author":"Moudy","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1705.101707","article-title":"Evolution of new genotype of West Nile virus in North America","volume":"17","author":"McMullen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/43.2.309","article-title":"Effects of temperature on the transmission of West Nile virus by Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae)","volume":"43","author":"Reisen","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"79","article-title":"Spatial and temporal distribution of mosquitoes in underground storm drain systems in Orange County, California","volume":"28","author":"Su","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Vector Ecol."},{"key":"ref_94","first-page":"1","article-title":"The energetic basis of the urban heat island","volume":"108","author":"Oke","year":"1982","journal-title":"Quart J. R. Meterol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/27.4.607","article-title":"Diel changes in adult mosquito microhabitat temperatures and their relationship to the extrinsic incubation of arboviruses in mosquitoes in Kern County, California, U.S.A","volume":"27","author":"Meyer","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/34.4.430","article-title":"Time of host-seeking by Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae) in California","volume":"34","author":"Reisen","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/32.5.636","article-title":"Effect of temperature on Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae) from the Coachella and San Joaquin Valleys of California","volume":"32","author":"Reisen","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/29.4.582","article-title":"Ecology of mosquitoes and St. Louis encephalitis virus in the Los Angeles Basin of California, 1987\u20131990","volume":"29","author":"Reisen","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/43.2.309","article-title":"Effects of temperature on the transmission of West Nile virus by Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae)","volume":"43","author":"Reisen","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2012.11-0342","article-title":"The effects of temperature on the emergence and seasonality of West Nile virus in California","volume":"86","author":"Hartley","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/31.3.323","article-title":"Potential effect of global warming on mosquito-borne arboviruses","volume":"31","author":"Reeves","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwj023","article-title":"Geographic prediction of human onset of West Nile virus using dead crow clusters: an evaluation of year 2002 data in New York State","volume":"163","author":"Johnson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1603\/0022-2585(2005)042[0367:AHAMDC]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Avian host and mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) vector competence determine the efficiency of West Nile and St. Louis encephalitis virus transmission","volume":"42","author":"Reisen","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/44.6.1067","article-title":"Dead birds increase the risk of West Nile Virus infection in Culex mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in Domestic Landscapes","volume":"44","author":"Nielsen","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/43.2.356","article-title":"Role of corvids in epidemiology of West Nile virus in southern California","volume":"43","author":"Reisen","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1038\/scientificamerican0400-20","article-title":"Outbreak not contained. West Nile virus triggers a reevaluation of public health surveillance","volume":"282","author":"Holloway","year":"2000","journal-title":"Sci. Am."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1151","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2009.09-0106","article-title":"Prevalence of West Nile Virus in migratory birds during spring and fall migration","volume":"81","author":"Dusek","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2010.10-0200","article-title":"Migratory birds and the dispersal of arboviruses in California","volume":"83","author":"Reisen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2006.6.128","article-title":"Modeling movement of West Nile virus in the Western hemisphere","volume":"6","author":"Rappole","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_110","first-page":"66","article-title":"Surveillance for mosquito-borne encephalitis virus activity and human disease, including West Nile virus, in California, 2004","volume":"73","author":"Hom","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proc. Mosq. Vector Control. Assoc. Calif."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022172400027108","article-title":"Weather, host and vector--their interplay in the spread of insect-borne animal virus diseases","volume":"85","author":"Sellers","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Hyg. (Lond)"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1089\/vim.2000.13.415","article-title":"European experience with the West Nile virus ecology and epidemiology: Could it be relevant for the New World?","volume":"13","author":"Hubalek","year":"2000","journal-title":"Viral Immunol."},{"key":"ref_113","unstructured":"Barnard, B. (2005). Outbreak! Plagues That Changed History, Crown Publishers."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1993.48.757","article-title":"Vertical transmission of West Nile virus by Culex and Aedes species mosquitoes","volume":"48","author":"Baqar","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0704.017426","article-title":"West Nile virus in overwintering Culex mosquitoes, New York City, 2000","volume":"7","author":"Nasci","year":"2001","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/42.3.490","article-title":"Dectection of West Nile viral RNA from an overwintering pool of Culex pipiens pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae) in New Jersey, 2003","volume":"42","author":"Farajollahi","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_117","first-page":"326","article-title":"The discovery of West Nile virus in overwintering Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae) mosquitoes in Lehigh County, Pennsylvania","volume":"20","author":"Bugbee","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Am. Mosq. Control. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nelms, B.M., Macedo, P.A., Kothera, L., Savage, H.M., and Reisen, W.K. (2013). Overwintering biology of Culex mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in the Sacramento Valley, California. J. Med. Entomol., in press.","DOI":"10.1603\/ME12280"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.1086\/508754","article-title":"Importance of vertical and horizontal transmission of West Nile virus by Culex pipiens in the Northeastern United States","volume":"194","author":"Anderson","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/45.3.445","article-title":"Extrinsic incubation periods for horizontal and vertical transmission of West Nile virus by Culex pipiens pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae)","volume":"45","author":"Anderson","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nelms, B.M., Fechter-Leggett, E., Carroll, B.D., Macedo, P.A., Kluh, S., and Reisen, W.K. (2013). Experimental and natural vertical transmission of West Nile Virus by California Culex mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). J. Med. Entomol., in press.","DOI":"10.1603\/ME12264"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/43.2.344","article-title":"Overwintering of West Nile virus in Southern California","volume":"43","author":"Reisen","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2012.11-0654","article-title":"Detection of persistent West Nile virus RNA in experimentally and naturally infected avian hosts","volume":"87","author":"Wheeler","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-009-0369-x","article-title":"Persistent West Nile virus infection in the house sparrow (Passer domesticus)","volume":"154","author":"Nemeth","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"864","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2009.80.864","article-title":"Humoral immunity to West Nile virus is long-lasting and protective in the house sparrow (Passer domesticus)","volume":"80","author":"Nemeth","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1860","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001860","article-title":"Dynamics of West Nile Virus Persistence in House Sparrows (Passer domesticus)","volume":"6","author":"Wheeler","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop Dis."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1603\/0022-2585-38.3.393","article-title":"Encephalitis virus persistence in California birds: Preliminary studies with house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus)","volume":"38","author":"Reisen","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1603\/0022-2585-41.5.978","article-title":"Effect of dose on house finch (Carpodacus mexicanus) infection with western equine encephalomyelitis and St. Louis encephalitis viruses","volume":"41","author":"Reisen","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2012.1097","article-title":"Chronic infections of West Nile virus detected in California dead birds","volume":"13","author":"Reisen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_130","first-page":"79","article-title":"Study of chronic forms of arbovirus infections in birds. 1. Experiments with West Nile, Sindbis, Bhandja and Sicilian mosquito fever viruses","volume":"28","author":"Semenov","year":"1973","journal-title":"Vestn Akad Med. Nauk SSSR"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-7.1.37","article-title":"Spring relapse of Plasmodium relictum infections in an experimental field population of English sparrows (Passer domesticus)","volume":"7","author":"Applegate","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1912","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1312.070413","article-title":"Crow deaths caused by West Nile virus during winter","volume":"13","author":"Dawson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2331","DOI":"10.1126\/science.286.5448.2331","article-title":"Isolation of West Nile virus from mosquitoes, crows, and a Cooper's hawk in Connecticut","volume":"286","author":"Anderson","year":"1999","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3110","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.38.8.3110-3111.2000","article-title":"Recovery and identification of West Nile virus from a hawk in winter","volume":"38","author":"Garmendia","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1649","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1009.040203","article-title":"Year-round West Nile virus activity, Gulf Coast region, Texas and Louisiana","volume":"10","author":"Tesh","year":"2004","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_136","first-page":"4","article-title":"Migratory birds and the spread of encephalitis viruses in California: 10 years of data from the Coachella Valley","volume":"75","author":"Wheeler","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Mosq. Vector Control. Assoc. Calif."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a121181","article-title":"Further evidence of southward transport of arboviruses by migratory birds","volume":"92","author":"Lord","year":"1970","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_138","first-page":"123","article-title":"Evidence of southward transport of arboviruses from the U.S. by migratory birds","volume":"11","author":"Stamm","year":"1963","journal-title":"Ann. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1093\/aesa\/79.4.664","article-title":"Overwintering studies on Culex tarsalis (Diptera:Culicidae) in Kern County, California: Survival and the experimental induction and termination of diapause","volume":"79","author":"Reisen","year":"1986","journal-title":"Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_140","first-page":"1","article-title":"Diapause and related phenomena in Culex mosquitoes: Their relation to arbovirus disease ecology","volume":"4","author":"Eldridge","year":"1987","journal-title":"Curr. Topics Vector Res."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/32.5.654","article-title":"Short term reproductive diapause by Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae) in the Coachella Valley of California","volume":"32","author":"Reisen","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/47.2.230","article-title":"Effects of warm winter temperature on the abundance and gonotrophic activity of Culex (Diptera: Culicidae) in California","volume":"47","author":"Reisen","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_143","first-page":"125","article-title":"Impact of climate variation and adult mosquito control on the West Nile virus epidemic in Davis, California during 2006","volume":"75","author":"Nielsen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Mosq. Vector Control. Assoc. Calif."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2010.10-0076","article-title":"West Nile virus emergence and persistence in Los Angeles, California, 2003\u20132008","volume":"83","author":"Kwan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2531","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02169-06","article-title":"Declining growth rate of West Nile virus in North America","volume":"81","author":"Snapinn","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1965.14.170","article-title":"A three-year study of the feeding habits of Culex tarsalis in Kern County, California","volume":"14","author":"Tempelis","year":"1965","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/11.6.635","article-title":"Host-feeding patterns of mosquitoes, with a review of advances in analysis of blood meals by serology","volume":"11","author":"Tempelis","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2008.0042","article-title":"Nestling passerines are not important hosts for amplification of west nile virus in Chicago, Illinois","volume":"9","author":"Loss","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2007.0123","article-title":"Rapid amplification of West Nile virus: The role of hatch-year birds","volume":"8","author":"Hamer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e82","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.0040082","article-title":"West Nile virus epidemics in North America are driven by shifts in mosquito feeding behavior","volume":"4","author":"Kilpatrick","year":"2006","journal-title":"PLoS Biol."},{"key":"ref_151","first-page":"110","article-title":"Human bait collections of mosquitoes in a southern California freshwater marsh","volume":"54","author":"Cope","year":"1986","journal-title":"Calif. Mosq. Vector Contr. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_152","first-page":"277","article-title":"Evaluation of trapping methods, biting behavior, and parity rates for mosquitoes--Harbor Lakes, Wilmington, California, U.S.A","volume":"14","author":"Cope","year":"1989","journal-title":"Bull. Soc. Vector Ecol."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1986.35.601","article-title":"Air conditioning and television as protective factors in arboviral encephalitis risk","volume":"35","author":"Gahlinger","year":"1986","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1747","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1411.080719","article-title":"Delinquent mortgages, neglected swimming pools, and West Nile virus, California","volume":"14","author":"Reisen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.77.11.1169","article-title":"Detection of swimming pools by geographic object-based image analysis to support West Nile Virus control efforts","volume":"77","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1405.071347","article-title":"Efficacy of aerial spraying of mosquito adulticide in reducing incidence of West Nile Virus, California, 2005","volume":"14","author":"Carney","year":"2008","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/45.4.751","article-title":"Impact of aerial spraying of pyrethrin insecticide on Culex pipiens and Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae) abundance and West Nile virus infection rates in an urban\/suburban area of Sacramento County, California","volume":"45","author":"Elnaiem","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1000092","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000092","article-title":"Temperature, viral genetics, and the transmission of West Nile virus by Culex pipiens mosquitoes","volume":"4","author":"Kilpatrick","year":"2008","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2012.11-0473","article-title":"Horizontal and vertical transmission of West Nile Virus Genotype NY99 by Culex salinarius and Genotypes NY99 and WN02 by Culex tarsalis","volume":"86","author":"Anderson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2523","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.032318-0","article-title":"North American West Nile virus genotype isolates demonstrate differential replicative capacities in response to temperature","volume":"92","author":"Andrade","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1126","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/45.6.1126","article-title":"Does variation in Culex (Diptera: Culicidae) vector competence enable outbreaks of West Nile virus in California?","volume":"45","author":"Reisen","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2005.72.99","article-title":"Variation in virulence of West Nile virus strains for house sparrows (Passer domesticus)","volume":"72","author":"Langevin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_163","first-page":"43","article-title":"Surveillance for mosquito-borne encephalitis virus activity and human disease, including West Nile virus, in California, 2005","volume":"74","author":"Hom","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Mosq. Vector Control. Assoc. Calif."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"764","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1305.070015","article-title":"Chikungunya virus in US travelers returning from India, 2006","volume":"13","author":"Lanciotti","year":"2007","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0901.020220","article-title":"Texas lifestyle limits transmission of dengue virus","volume":"9","author":"Reiter","year":"2003","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/5\/9\/2079\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:49:05Z","timestamp":1760219345000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/5\/9\/2079"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,4]]},"references-count":165,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,9]]}},"alternative-id":["v5092079"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v5092079","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,4]]}}}