{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T01:16:09Z","timestamp":1791422169479,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":120,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,22]],"date-time":"2016-10-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1477094400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Oncolytic virotherapeutic agents are likely to become serious contenders in cancer treatment. The vaccine strain of measles virus is an agent with an impressive range of oncolytic activity in pre-clinical trials with increasing evidence of safety and efficacy in early clinical trials. This paramyxovirus vaccine has a proven safety record and is amenable to careful genetic modification in the laboratory. Overexpression of the measles virus (MV) receptor CD46 in many tumour cells may direct the virus to preferentially enter transformed cells and there is increasing awareness of the importance of nectin-4 and signaling lymphocytic activation molecule (SLAM) in oncolysis. Successful attempts to retarget MV by inserting genes for tumour-specific ligands to antigens such as carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), CD20, CD38, and by engineering the virus to express synthetic microRNA targeting sequences, and \u201cblinding\u201d the virus to the natural viral receptors are exciting measures to increase viral specificity and enhance the oncolytic effect. Sodium iodine symporter (NIS) can also be expressed by MV, which enables in vivo tracking of MV infection. Radiovirotherapy using MV-NIS, chemo-virotherapy to convert prodrugs to their toxic metabolites, and immune-virotherapy including incorporating antibodies against immune checkpoint inhibitors can also increase the oncolytic potential. Anti-viral host immune responses are a recognized barrier to the success of MV, and approaches such as transporting MV to the tumour sites by carrier cells, are showing promise. MV Clinical trials are producing encouraging preliminary results in ovarian cancer, myeloma and cutaneous non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and the outcome of currently open trials in glioblastoma multiforme, mesothelioma and squamous cell carcinoma are eagerly anticipated.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v8100294","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,24]],"date-time":"2016-10-24T10:46:39Z","timestamp":1477305999000},"page":"294","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":116,"title":["Measles to the Rescue: A Review of Oncolytic Measles Virus"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Sarah","family":"Aref","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"UCL Cancer Institute, University College London, London WC1E 6DD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katharine","family":"Bailey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UCL Cancer Institute, University College London, London WC1E 6DD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adele","family":"Fielding","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UCL Cancer Institute, University College London, London WC1E 6DD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1097\/00000441-190412740-00001","article-title":"The influence of complicating diseases upon leukaemia","volume":"127","author":"Dock","year":"1904","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(71)90869-5","article-title":"Possible effect of measles on leukaemia","volume":"1","author":"Pasquinucci","year":"1971","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"61","article-title":"Spontaneous remission in burkitt\u2019s lymphoma","volume":"44","author":"Ziegler","year":"1976","journal-title":"Natl. Cancer Inst. Monogr."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(71)91186-X","article-title":"Hodgkin\u2019s disease: Remissions after measles","volume":"1","author":"Zygiert","year":"1971","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.3181\/00379727-86-21073","article-title":"Propagation in tissue cultures of cytopathogenic agents from patients with measles","volume":"86","author":"Enders","year":"1954","journal-title":"Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM196007282630401","article-title":"Studies on an attenuated measles-virus vaccine. I. Development and preparations of the vaccine: Technics for assay of effects of vaccination","volume":"263","author":"Enders","year":"1960","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S15","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/170.Supplement_1.S15","article-title":"Virology of measles virus","volume":"170","author":"Bellini","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-129-2-199807150-00007","article-title":"Vaccine-associated measles pneumonitis in an adult with aids","volume":"129","author":"Angel","year":"1998","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Stratton, K.R., Howe, C.J., and Johnston, R.B. (1994). Adverse Events Associated with Childhood Vaccines: Evidence Bearing on Causality, National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19535","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0707830104","article-title":"Crystal structure of measles virus hemagglutinin provides insight into effective vaccines","volume":"104","author":"Hashiguchi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"926","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2014.04.003","article-title":"Remission of disseminated cancer after systemic oncolytic virotherapy","volume":"89","author":"Russell","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"1","article-title":"Measles. History and basic biology. Introduction","volume":"329","author":"Griffin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"900","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro1550","article-title":"Global measles elimination","volume":"4","author":"Moss","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1038\/nsmb.1967","article-title":"The heads of the measles virus attachment protein move to transmit the fusion-triggering signal","volume":"18","author":"Navaratnarajah","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Long, M.A., and Rossi, F.M. (2011). Targeted cell fusion facilitates stable heterokaryon generation in vitro and in vivo. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0026381"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1089\/104303401750148766","article-title":"Use of viral fusogenic membrane glycoproteins as novel therapeutic transgenes in gliomas","volume":"12","author":"Galanis","year":"2001","journal-title":"Hum. Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12859","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00078-07","article-title":"Cell-cell fusion induced by measles virus amplifies the type i interferon response","volume":"81","author":"Herschke","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1038\/35022579","article-title":"SLAM (CDw150) is a cellular receptor for measles virus","volume":"406","author":"Tatsuo","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1038\/376260a0","article-title":"A novel receptor involved in T-cell activation","volume":"376","author":"Cocks","year":"1995","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4614","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.151.9.4614","article-title":"Characterization of a cell surface glycoprotein IPO-3, expressed on activated human B and T lymphocytes","volume":"151","author":"Sidorenko","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1989","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.167.4.1989","article-title":"Signaling lymphocytic activation molecule is expressed on mature CD83+ dendritic cells and is up-regulated by IL-1\u03b2","volume":"167","author":"Kruse","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2913","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-82-12-2913","article-title":"Induction of the measles virus receptor slam (CD150) on monocytes","volume":"82","author":"Minagawa","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2905","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.72.4.2905-2916.1998","article-title":"A single amino acid change in the hemagglutinin protein of measles virus determines its ability to bind CD46 and reveals another receptor on marmoset B cells","volume":"72","author":"Hsu","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6025","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.67.10.6025-6032.1993","article-title":"Human membrane cofactor protein (CD46) acts as a cellular receptor for measles virus","volume":"67","author":"Naniche","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(93)80071-L","article-title":"The human CD46 molecule is a receptor for measles virus (Edmonston strain)","volume":"75","author":"Dorig","year":"1993","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10639","article-title":"Adherens junction protein nectin-4 is the epithelial receptor for measles virus","volume":"480","author":"Muhlebach","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Noyce, R.S., Bondre, D.G., Ha, M.N., Lin, L.T., Sisson, G., Tsao, M.S., and Richardson, C.D. (2011). Tumor cell marker pvrl4 (nectin 4) is an epithelial cell receptor for measles virus. PLoS Pathog., 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1002240"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"2448","article-title":"Measles virus blind to its epithelial cell receptor remains virulent in rhesus monkeys but cannot cross the airway epithelium and is not shed","volume":"118","author":"Leonard","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Invest."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4919","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-04-0884","article-title":"High CD46 receptor density determines preferential killing of tumor cells by oncolytic measles virus","volume":"64","author":"Anderson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2019","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2013.171","article-title":"Measles virus entry through the signaling lymphocyte activation molecule governs efficacy of mantle cell lymphoma radiovirotherapy","volume":"21","author":"Miest","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1309\/AJCPGXK0FR4MHIHB","article-title":"Nectin 4 overexpression in ovarian cancer tissues and serum: Potential role as a serum biomarker","volume":"134","author":"Derycke","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19543","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M410943200","article-title":"Nectin-4, a new serological breast cancer marker, is a substrate for tumor necrosis factor-alpha-converting enzyme (TACE)\/ADAM-17","volume":"280","author":"Reymond","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6694","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-09-0016","article-title":"Identification of nectin-4 oncoprotein as a diagnostic and therapeutic target for lung cancer","volume":"69","author":"Takano","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24895","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.4366","article-title":"A measles virus selectively blind to signaling lymphocytic activation molecule shows anti-tumor activity against lung cancer cells","volume":"6","author":"Fujiyuki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Awano, M., Fujiyuki, T., Shoji, K., Amagai, Y., Murakami, Y., Furukawa, Y., Sato, H., Yoneda, M., and Kai, C. (2016). Measles virus selectively blind to SLAM has oncolytic efficacy against nectin-4-expressing pancreatic cancer cells. Cancer Sci.","DOI":"10.1111\/cas.13064"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1163","DOI":"10.1517\/14712590903170653","article-title":"Engineering oncolytic viruses to exploit tumor specific defects in innate immune signaling pathways","volume":"9","author":"Naik","year":"2009","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Biol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1349-7006.2007.00720.x","article-title":"Interferon regulatory factor family of transcription factors and regulation of oncogenesis","volume":"99","author":"Takaoka","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cancer Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3484","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02106-12","article-title":"Innate immune defense defines susceptibility of sarcoma cells to measles vaccine virus-based oncolysis","volume":"87","author":"Berchtold","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"6463","article-title":"Neutrophils contribute to the measles virus-induced antitumor effect: Enhancement by granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor expression","volume":"63","author":"Grote","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2015.149","article-title":"The role of neutrophils in measles virus-mediated oncolysis differs between B-cell malignancies and is not always enhanced by GCSF","volume":"24","author":"Dey","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-12-2733","article-title":"Measles virus vaccine-infected tumor cells induce tumor antigen cross-presentation by human plasmacytoid dendritic cells","volume":"19","author":"Guillerme","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1038\/gt.2011.205","article-title":"Measles virus causes immunogenic cell death in human melanoma","volume":"20","author":"Donnelly","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/S1525-0016(02)00033-3","article-title":"An oncolytic measles virus engineered to enter cells through the CD20 antigen","volume":"7","author":"Bucheit","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2087","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.75.5.2087-2096.2001","article-title":"Single-chain antibody displayed on a recombinant measles virus confers entry through the tumor-associated carcinoembryonic antigen","volume":"75","author":"Hammond","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2557","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2002-07-2195","article-title":"Oncolytic measles viruses displaying a single-chain antibody against CD38, a myeloma cell marker","volume":"101","author":"Peng","year":"2003","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1012","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2009.39","article-title":"Intravascularly administered RGD-displaying measles viruses bind to and infect neovessel endothelial cells in vivo","volume":"17","author":"Ong","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5292","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-04-2879","article-title":"Targeted measles virus vector displaying echistatin infects endothelial cells via \u03b1v\u03b23 and leads to tumor regression","volume":"65","author":"Hallak","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1234","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.gt.3302286","article-title":"Targeting virus entry and membrane fusion through specific peptide\/MHC complexes using a high-affinity T-cell receptor","volume":"11","author":"Peng","year":"2004","journal-title":"Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2004.08.036","article-title":"Reengineering paramyxovirus tropism","volume":"329","author":"Hadac","year":"2004","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt1060","article-title":"Rescue and propagation of fully retargeted oncolytic measles viruses","volume":"23","author":"Nakamura","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3206","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.69.5.3206-3210.1995","article-title":"Engineered serine protease inhibitor prevents furin-catalyzed activation of the fusion glycoprotein and production of infectious measles virus","volume":"69","author":"Watanabe","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6822(86)90212-6","article-title":"The nucleotide sequence of the mRNA encoding the fusion protein of measles virus (Edmonston strain): A comparison of fusion proteins from several different paramyxoviruses","volume":"155","author":"Richardson","year":"1986","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"441","article-title":"Recombinant measles virus requiring an exogenous protease for activation of infectivity","volume":"81","author":"Maisner","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7694","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-06-0538","article-title":"Oncolytic efficacy and enhanced safety of measles virus activated by tumor-secreted matrix metalloproteinases","volume":"66","author":"Springfeld","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7620","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-09-4650","article-title":"Liver cancer protease activity profiles support therapeutic options with matrix metalloproteinase-activatable oncolytic measles virus","volume":"70","author":"Muhlebach","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1097","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2011.55","article-title":"MicroRNA-sensitive oncolytic measles viruses for cancer-specific vector tropism","volume":"19","author":"Leber","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1038\/cgt.2014.40","article-title":"Microrna-mediated multi-tissue detargeting of oncolytic measles virus","volume":"21","author":"Baertsch","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cancer Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1038\/nm0502-527","article-title":"Non-invasive in vivo monitoring of trackable viruses expressing soluble marker peptides","volume":"8","author":"Peng","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9568","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.73.11.9568-9575.1999","article-title":"Observation of measles virus cell-to-cell spread in astrocytoma cells by using a green fluorescent protein-expressing recombinant virus","volume":"73","author":"Duprex","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7972","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.74.17.7972-7979.2000","article-title":"In vitro and in vivo infection of neural cells by a recombinant measles virus expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein","volume":"74","author":"Duprex","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1002\/1097-0142(197601)37:1+<562::AID-CNCR2820370721>3.0.CO;2-0","article-title":"Carcinoembryonic antigen: Clinical application","volume":"37","author":"Go","year":"1976","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1641","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2003-07-2233","article-title":"Image-guided radiovirotherapy for multiple myeloma using a recombinant measles virus expressing the thyroidal sodium iodide symporter","volume":"103","author":"Dingli","year":"2004","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4416","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.139.10.6329","article-title":"An immunohistochemical study of Na+\/I\u2212 symporter in human thyroid tissues and salivary gland tissues","volume":"139","author":"Jhiang","year":"1998","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2265.2002.01640.x","article-title":"The sodium iodide symporter: Its pathophysiological and therapeutic implications","volume":"57","author":"Spitzweg","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1002\/jcb.10714","article-title":"In vivo imaging and tumor therapy with the sodium iodide symporter","volume":"90","author":"Dingli","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Cell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11840","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-06-1200","article-title":"Retargeted oncolytic measles strains entering via the EGFRvIII receptor maintain significant antitumor activity against gliomas with increased tumor specificity","volume":"66","author":"Allen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2041","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2009.218","article-title":"Noninvasive imaging and radiovirotherapy of prostate cancer using an oncolytic measles virus expressing the sodium iodide symporter","volume":"17","author":"Msaouel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hutzen, B., Pierson, C.R., Russell, S.J., Galanis, E., Raffel, C., and Studebaker, A.W. (2012). Treatment of medulloblastoma using an oncolytic measles virus encoding the thyroidal sodium iodide symporter shows enhanced efficacy with radioiodine. BMC Cancer.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2407-12-508"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10939","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-07-1252","article-title":"Lymphoma chemovirotherapy: CD20-targeted and convertase-armed measles virus can synergize with fludarabine","volume":"67","author":"Ungerechts","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1991","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.mt.6300291","article-title":"An immunocompetent murine model for oncolysis with an armed and targeted measles virus","volume":"15","author":"Ungerechts","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygyno.2013.05.004","article-title":"Enhanced killing of ovarian carcinoma using oncolytic measles vaccine virus armed with a yeast cytosine deaminase and uracil phosphoribosyltransferase","volume":"130","author":"Hartkopf","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gynecol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1034","DOI":"10.1038\/jid.2012.459","article-title":"Chemovirotherapy of malignant melanoma with a targeted and armed oncolytic measles virus","volume":"133","author":"Kaufmann","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Invest. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1089\/hum.2012.136","article-title":"A novel armed oncolytic measles vaccine virus for the treatment of cholangiocarcinoma","volume":"24","author":"Lange","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hum. Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.1038\/gt.2013.28","article-title":"An armed oncolytic measles vaccine virus eliminates human hepatoma cells independently of apoptosis","volume":"20","author":"Lampe","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1089\/hum.2012.205","article-title":"Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor-armed oncolytic measles virus is an effective therapeutic cancer vaccine","volume":"24","author":"Grossardt","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hum. Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1038\/cgt.2010.10","article-title":"Oncolytic measles viruses encoding interferon \u03b2 and the thyroidal sodium iodide symporter gene for mesothelioma virotherapy","volume":"17","author":"Li","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cancer Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2012.4","article-title":"Expression of immunomodulatory neutrophil-activating protein of helicobacter pylori enhances the antitumor activity of oncolytic measles virus","volume":"20","author":"Iankov","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1556","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2008.152","article-title":"Interleukin-13 displaying retargeted oncolytic measles virus strains have significant activity against gliomas with improved specificity","volume":"16","author":"Allen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1024","DOI":"10.1038\/gt.2008.30","article-title":"Heat shock protein inhibitors increase the efficacy of measles virotherapy","volume":"15","author":"Liu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1560","DOI":"10.1038\/bjc.2013.117","article-title":"Exploiting CTLA-4, PD-1 and PD-L1 to reactivate the host immune response against cancer","volume":"108","author":"Quezada","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5300","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-13-0143","article-title":"CTLA-4 and PD-1\/PD-L1 blockade: New immunotherapeutic modalities with durable clinical benefit in melanoma patients","volume":"19","author":"Ott","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1949","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2014.160","article-title":"CTLA-4 and PD-L1 checkpoint blockade enhances oncolytic measles virus therapy","volume":"22","author":"Engeland","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1034","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2011.44","article-title":"Differential cytopathology and kinetics of measles oncolysis in two primary B-cell malignancies provides mechanistic insights","volume":"19","author":"Patel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2287","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2004-11-4558","article-title":"Oncolytic measles virus in cutaneous T-cell lymphomas mounts antitumor immune responses in vivo and targets interferon-resistant tumor cells","volume":"106","author":"Heinzerling","year":"2005","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2002","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.V98.7.2002","article-title":"Systemic therapy of myeloma xenografts by an attenuated measles virus","volume":"98","author":"Peng","year":"2001","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.cgt.7700823","article-title":"Oncolytic activities of approved mumps and measles vaccines for therapy of ovarian cancer","volume":"12","author":"Myers","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cancer Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13149","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01415-07","article-title":"Affinity thresholds for membrane fusion triggering by viral glycoproteins","volume":"81","author":"Hasegawa","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1128","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.20962","article-title":"Prostate-specific membrane antigen retargeted measles virotherapy for the treatment of prostate cancer","volume":"69","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-12-2221","article-title":"Specific elimination of CD133+ tumor cells with targeted oncolytic measles virus","volume":"73","author":"Bach","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2013.16","article-title":"Darpin-targeting of measles virus: Unique bispecificity, effective oncolysis, and enhanced safety","volume":"21","author":"Friedrich","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1868","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-05-1803","article-title":"Dual therapy of ovarian cancer using measles viruses expressing carcinoembryonic antigen and sodium iodide symporter","volume":"12","author":"Hasegawa","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-09-2762","article-title":"Phase I trial of intraperitoneal administration of an oncolytic measles virus strain engineered to express carcinoembryonic antigen for recurrent ovarian cancer","volume":"70","author":"Galanis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"2462","article-title":"Use of a vaccine strain of measles virus genetically engineered to produce carcinoembryonic antigen as a novel therapeutic agent against glioblastoma multiforme","volume":"63","author":"Phuong","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"National Institutes of Health Nct00390299: Viral Therapy in Treating Patients with Recurrent Glioblastoma Multuforme, Available online: http:\/\/www.clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT00390299."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1007\/s10549-006-9200-5","article-title":"A measles virus vaccine strain derivative as a novel oncolytic agent against breast cancer","volume":"99","author":"McDonald","year":"2006","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1465","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.21437","article-title":"Engineered measles virus as a novel oncolytic viral therapy system for hepatocellular carcinoma","volume":"44","author":"Blechacz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.20857","article-title":"Engineered measles virus as a novel oncolytic therapy against prostate cancer","volume":"69","author":"Msaouel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2010.43","article-title":"Systemic therapy of disseminated myeloma in passively immunized mice using measles virus-infected cell carriers","volume":"18","author":"Liu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1038\/gt.2012.62","article-title":"Oncolytic measles virus strains have significant antitumor activity against glioma stem cells","volume":"20","author":"Allen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.2214\/AJR.09.3672","article-title":"Sodium iodide symporter (NIS)-mediated radiovirotherapy for pancreatic cancer","volume":"195","author":"Penheiter","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Roentgenol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1089\/hum.2011.128","article-title":"Oncolytic measles virus encoding thyroidal sodium iodide symporter for squamous cell cancer of the head and neck radiovirotherapy","volume":"23","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hum. Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.radonc.2013.05.036","article-title":"Optimising measles virus-guided radiovirotherapy with external beam radiotherapy and specific checkpoint kinase 1 inhibition","volume":"108","author":"Touchefeu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Radiother. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygyno.2013.11.010","article-title":"Oncolytic measles and vesicular stomatitis virotherapy for endometrial cancer","volume":"132","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Gynecol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2525","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jid.5700529","article-title":"Recombinant measles virus induces cytolysis of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma in vitro and in vivo","volume":"126","author":"Kunzi","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Invest. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3746","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.V97.12.3746","article-title":"Live attenuated measles virus induces regression of human lymphoma xenografts in immunodeficient mice","volume":"97","author":"Grote","year":"2001","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1395","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2009.92","article-title":"Converting tumor-specific markers into reporters of oncolytic virus infection","volume":"17","author":"Iankov","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1506","DOI":"10.1038\/gt.2010.103","article-title":"Mantle cell lymphoma salvage regimen: Synergy between a reprogrammed oncolytic virus and two chemotherapeutics","volume":"17","author":"Ungerechts","year":"2010","journal-title":"Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"598","DOI":"10.1038\/cgt.2011.30","article-title":"Armed and targeted measles virus for chemovirotherapy of pancreatic cancer","volume":"18","author":"Bossow","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cancer Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1089\/humc.2013.127","article-title":"\u201cPULSED\u201d versus \u201cCONTINUOUS\u201d application of the prodrug 5-FC for enhancing oncolytic effectiveness of a measles vaccine virus armed with a suicide gene","volume":"25","author":"Yurttas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hum. Gene Ther. Clin. Dev."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1038\/cgt.2011.82","article-title":"Polyinosinic acid decreases sequestration and improves systemic therapy of measles virus","volume":"19","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cancer Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1007\/s00281-011-0245-0","article-title":"Immunomodulatory effects of cyclophosphamide and implementations for vaccine design","volume":"33","author":"Sistigu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Semin. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1038\/gt.2012.31","article-title":"Using clinically approved cyclophosphamide regimens to control the humoral immune response to oncolytic viruses","volume":"20","author":"Peng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_113","unstructured":"ClinicalTrials.gov, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT02192775."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1097\/CJI.0000000000000108","article-title":"The immunomodulatory potential of mesenchymal stromal cells: A story of a regulatory network","volume":"39","author":"Najar","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1327","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2013-09-528851","article-title":"Human mesenchymal stromal cells deliver systemic oncolytic measles virus to treat acute lymphoblastic leukemia in the presence of humoral immunity","volume":"123","author":"Castleton","year":"2014","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2013.07.010","article-title":"Systemically delivered measles virus-infected mesenchymal stem cells can evade host immunity to inhibit liver cancer growth","volume":"59","author":"Ong","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7246","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-09-1292","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cell carriers protect oncolytic measles viruses from antibody neutralization in an orthotopic ovarian cancer therapy model","volume":"15","author":"Mader","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.10438","article-title":"Characterization of magnetic viral complexes for targeted delivery in oncology","volume":"5","author":"Almstatter","year":"2015","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1813","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2011.92","article-title":"Envelope-chimeric entry-targeted measles virus escapes neutralization and achieves oncolysis","volume":"19","author":"Miest","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-14-2533","article-title":"Oncolytic measles virus expressing the sodium iodide symporter to treat drug-resistant ovarian cancer","volume":"75","author":"Galanis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cancer Res."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/8\/10\/294\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:33:44Z","timestamp":1760211224000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/8\/10\/294"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,22]]},"references-count":120,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,10]]}},"alternative-id":["v8100294"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v8100294","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,22]]}}}