{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T04:16:22Z","timestamp":1760242582081,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,28]],"date-time":"2017-11-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1511827200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Experimental intranasal infection of marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) with calpox virus results in fatal disease. Route and dose used for viral inoculation of the test animals mimics the natural transmission of smallpox, thus representing a suitable model to study pathogenesis and to evaluate new vaccines against orthopoxvirus infection. However, the pathogenic mechanisms leading to death are still unclear. Therefore, our study aimed at investigating the kinetics of pathological alterations to clarify the pathogenesis in calpox virus infection. Following intranasal inoculation with two different viral doses, common marmosets were sacrificed on days 3, 5, 7, 10 and 12 post inoculation. Collected tissue was screened using histopathology, immunohistochemistry, transmission electron microscopy, and virological assays. Our data suggest that primary replication took place in nasal and bronchial epithelia followed by secondary replication in submandibular lymph nodes and spleen. Parallel to viremia at day 7, virus was detectable in many organs, mainly located in epithelial cells and macrophages, as well as in endothelial cells. Based on the onset of clinical signs, the histological and ultrastructural lesions and the immunohistochemical distribution pattern of the virus, the incubation period was defined to last 11 days, which resembles human smallpox. In conclusion, the data indicate that the calpox model is highly suitable for studying orthopoxvirus-induced disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v9120363","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,28]],"date-time":"2017-11-28T11:23:50Z","timestamp":1511868230000},"page":"363","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Dynamics of Pathological and Virological Findings During Experimental Calpox Virus Infection of Common Marmosets (Callithrix jacchus)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Anne","family":"Schmitt","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Pathology Unit, German Primate Center (DPZ), Kellnerweg 4, 37077 G\u00f6ttingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Li","family":"Gan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Infection Models, German Primate Center (DPZ), Kellnerweg 4, 37077 G\u00f6ttingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3347-6075","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed","family":"Abd El Wahed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Microbiology and Animal Hygiene, Department of Animal Sciences, University of G\u00f6ttingen, Burckhardtweg 2, 37077 G\u00f6ttingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tingchuan","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Infection Models, German Primate Center (DPZ), Kellnerweg 4, 37077 G\u00f6ttingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Heinz","family":"Ellerbrok","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Robert Koch-Institute, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Highly Pathogenic Viruses (ZBS1), Seestr. 10, 13353 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Franz-Josef","family":"Kaup","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pathology Unit, German Primate Center (DPZ), Kellnerweg 4, 37077 G\u00f6ttingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christiane","family":"Stahl-Hennig","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Infection Models, German Primate Center (DPZ), Kellnerweg 4, 37077 G\u00f6ttingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kerstin","family":"M\u00e4tz-Rensing","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pathology Unit, German Primate Center (DPZ), Kellnerweg 4, 37077 G\u00f6ttingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"916","DOI":"10.1093\/clinids\/4.5.916","article-title":"A successful eradication campaign. Global eradication of smallpox","volume":"4","author":"Fenner","year":"1982","journal-title":"Rev. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199808203390811","article-title":"Poxvirus dilemmas-monkeypox, smallpox, and biologic terrorism","volume":"339","author":"Breman","year":"1998","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1177\/0897190012456366","article-title":"Bioterrorism: Pathogens as weapons","volume":"25","author":"Anderson","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Pract."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1505.090159","article-title":"Cowpox virus transmission from pet rats to humans, Germany","volume":"15","author":"Campe","year":"2009","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shchelkunov, S.N. (2013). An increasing danger of zoonotic orthopoxvirus infections. PLoS Pathog., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1003756"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa032299","article-title":"The detection of monkeypox in humans in the Western Hemisphere","volume":"350","author":"Reed","year":"2004","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dabrowski, P.W., Radonic, A., Kurth, A., and Nitsche, A. (2013). Genome-wide comparison of cowpox viruses reveals a new clade related to variola virus. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0079953"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16262","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1005769107","article-title":"Major increase in human monkeypox incidence 30 years after smallpox vaccination campaigns cease in the Democratic Republic of Congo","volume":"107","author":"Rimoin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1318","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.00148-07","article-title":"Monkeypox-induced immunity and failure of childhood smallpox vaccination to provide complete protection","volume":"14","author":"Karem","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Vaccine Immunol."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2003). Update: Multistate outbreak of monkeypox--Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin, 2003. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 52, 642\u2013646."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1495","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0812.020089","article-title":"Rat-to-human transmission of Cowpox infection","volume":"8","author":"Wolfs","year":"2002","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"329","article-title":"Cowpox virus infection in pet rat owners: Not always immediately recognized","volume":"106","author":"Becker","year":"2009","journal-title":"Dtsch. Arzteblatt Int."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"598","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2133.1994.tb04969.x","article-title":"Human cowpox 1969\u20131993: A review based on 54 cases","volume":"131","author":"Baxby","year":"1994","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1404.070817","article-title":"Rat-to-elephant-to-human transmission of cowpox virus","volume":"14","author":"Kurth","year":"2008","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"880","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(90)92387-W","article-title":"Fatal cowpox-like virus infection transmitted by cat","volume":"336","author":"Gerritzen","year":"1990","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"421","article-title":"Animal poxviruses transmitted from cat to man: Current event with lethal end","volume":"38","author":"Czerny","year":"1991","journal-title":"Zent. Vet. B"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0b013e3282f44c74","article-title":"Cowpox virus infection: An emerging health threat","volume":"21","author":"Vorou","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2133.1993.tb00500.x","article-title":"Cowpox infection causing a generalized eruption in a patient with atopic dermatitis","volume":"129","author":"Blackford","year":"1993","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carroll, D.S., Emerson, G.L., Li, Y., Sammons, S., Olson, V., Frace, M., Nakazawa, Y., Czerny, C.P., Tryland, M., and Kolodziejek, J. (2011). Chasing Jenner\u2019s vaccine: Revisiting cowpox virus classification. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0023086"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1505.090235","article-title":"Cowpox virus transmission from pet rats to humans, France","volume":"15","author":"Ninove","year":"2009","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-4362.2001.01140.x","article-title":"Human cowpox infection in Sharkia Governorate","volume":"40","author":"Amer","year":"2001","journal-title":"Egypt. Int. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.19182\/remvt.9500","article-title":"Occurrence of cowpox-like lesions in cattle in Israel","volume":"49","author":"Yeruham","year":"1996","journal-title":"Rev. Elev. Med. Vet. Pays. Trop."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2009.08.026","article-title":"Zoonotic poxviruses","volume":"140","author":"Essbauer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1099\/00222615-45-3-157","article-title":"Cowpox","volume":"45","author":"Bennett","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.149.8.244","article-title":"Cowpox virus infection causing stillbirth in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)","volume":"149","author":"Wisser","year":"2001","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2013.1442","article-title":"Fatal cowpox virus infection in cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) in Germany","volume":"14","author":"Kalthoff","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2010.0170","article-title":"Orthopox virus infections in Eurasian wild rodents","volume":"11","author":"Kinnunen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1939","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.1999.0870","article-title":"Transmission dynamics of a zoonotic pathogen within and between wildlife host species","volume":"266","author":"Begon","year":"1999","journal-title":"Proc. Biol. Sci. R. Soc."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268800058258","article-title":"Serological evidence for the reservoir hosts of cowpox virus in British wildlife","volume":"115","author":"Crouch","year":"1995","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2763","DOI":"10.3390\/v2122763","article-title":"Monkeypox virus infections in small animal models for evaluation of anti-poxvirus agents","volume":"2","author":"Hutson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"852","DOI":"10.1177\/0300985810378649","article-title":"Animal models of orthopoxvirus infection","volume":"47","author":"Chapman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.2217\/fvl.13.76","article-title":"Orthopoxvirus inhibitors that are active in animal models: An update from 2008 to 2012","volume":"8","author":"Smee","year":"2013","journal-title":"Future Virol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcpa.2012.06.007","article-title":"Comparative pathology of smallpox and monkeypox in man and macaques","volume":"148","author":"Cann","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Comp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci1010040","article-title":"Non-human primate models of orthopoxvirus infections","volume":"1","author":"Schmitt","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0012880","article-title":"Experimental infection of cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis) with aerosolized monkeypox virus","volume":"5","author":"Nalca","year":"2010","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2013.01.001","article-title":"Animal models for highly pathogenic emerging viruses","volume":"3","author":"Safronetz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1704.101865","article-title":"Should remaining stockpiles of smallpox virus (variola) be destroyed?","volume":"17","author":"Weinstein","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2823","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2011.02.081","article-title":"Why not destroy the remaining smallpox virus stocks?","volume":"29","author":"Lane","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1089\/bsp.2010.0065","article-title":"Breaking the deadlock over destruction of the smallpox virus stocks","volume":"9","author":"Tucker","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biosecur. Bioterror."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McFadden, G. (2010). Killing a killer: What next for smallpox?. PLoS Pathog., 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000727"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1038\/514544a","article-title":"\"Forgotten\" NIH smallpox virus languishes on death row","volume":"514","author":"Reardon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2112","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01931-10","article-title":"Comparative analysis of monkeypox virus infection of cynomolgus macaques by the intravenous or intrabronchial inoculation route","volume":"85","author":"Johnson","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.immunol.21.120601.141049","article-title":"Poxviruses and immune evasion","volume":"21","author":"Seet","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.036905-0","article-title":"Intrabronchial inoculation of cynomolgus macaques with cowpox virus","volume":"93","author":"Smith","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kramski, M., M\u00e4tz-Rensing, K., Stahl-Hennig, C., Kaup, F.J., Nitsche, A., Pauli, G., and Ellerbrok, H. (2010). A novel highly reproducible and lethal nonhuman primate model for orthopox virus infection. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0010412"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1354\/vp.43-2-212","article-title":"Fatal poxvirus outbreak in a colony of New World monkeys","volume":"43","author":"Ellerbrok","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01310898","article-title":"Comparative analysis of the genomes of orthopoxviruses isolated from elephant, rhinoceros, and okapi by restriction enzymes","volume":"88","author":"Pilaski","year":"1986","journal-title":"Arch Virol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcpa.2011.06.003","article-title":"The pathology of experimental poxvirus infection in common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus): Further characterization of a new primate model for orthopoxvirus infections","volume":"146","author":"Kramski","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Comp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2011.07.013","article-title":"Cowpox virus infection of cynomolgus macaques as a model of hemorrhagic smallpox","volume":"418","author":"Johnson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Fenner, F., Henderson, D.A., Arita, I., Jezek, Z., and Ladnyi, I.D. (1988). Pathogenesis, pathology and immunology of smallpox. Smallpox and Its Eradication, WHO."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2012.00117","article-title":"Inhalational monkeypox virus infection in cynomolgus macaques","volume":"2","author":"Barnewall","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0105-2896.2005.00299.x","article-title":"Bronchus- and nasal-associated lymphoid tissues","volume":"206","author":"Bienenstock","year":"2005","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics6030378","article-title":"Intranasal DNA vaccine for protection against respiratory infectious diseases: The delivery perspectives","volume":"6","author":"Xu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pharmaceutics"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1086\/315190","article-title":"Cidofovir protects mice against lethal aerosol or intranasal cowpox virus challenge","volume":"181","author":"Bray","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"451","article-title":"Histopathogenesis of mousepox. I. Respiratory infection","volume":"43","author":"Roberts","year":"1962","journal-title":"Br. J. Exp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1177\/0300985812439077","article-title":"Clinical course and pathology in rats (Rattus norvegicus) after experimental cowpox virus infection by percutaneous and intranasal application","volume":"49","author":"Breithaupt","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. Pathzol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1053\/jcpa.1999.0309","article-title":"Necrotizing pneumonia in a cat caused by an orthopox virus","volume":"121","author":"Hinrichs","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Comp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"466","article-title":"Experimental respiratory infection with poxviruses. II. Pathological studies","volume":"47","author":"Lancaster","year":"1966","journal-title":"Br. J. Exp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.160.15.522","article-title":"Cowpox virus pneumonia in a domestic cat in Great Britain","volume":"160","author":"Chan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"453","article-title":"Experimental respiratory infection with poxviruses. I. Clinical virological and epidemiological studies","volume":"47","author":"Westwood","year":"1966","journal-title":"Br. J. Exp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"12","article-title":"The pathological anatomy and histology of variola","volume":"11","author":"Councilman","year":"1904","journal-title":"J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.5858\/2000-124-0362-AMMOAT","article-title":"A mouse model of aerosol-transmitted orthopoxviral disease: Morphology of experimental aerosol-transmitted orthopoxviral disease in a cowpox virus-BALB\/c mouse system","volume":"124","author":"Martinez","year":"2000","journal-title":"Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2007.10.002","article-title":"Capripoxvirus tissue tropism and shedding: A quantitative study in experimentally infected sheep and goats","volume":"371","author":"Bowden","year":"2008","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcpa.2011.12.001","article-title":"Pathology and viral antigen distribution following experimental infection of sheep and goats with capripoxvirus","volume":"146","author":"Babiuk","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Comp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1159\/000322101","article-title":"Orthopox viruses: Infections in humans","volume":"37","author":"Pauli","year":"2010","journal-title":"Transfus. Med. Hemother."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1581","DOI":"10.1038\/labinvest.3780373","article-title":"The pathology of experimental aerosolized monkeypox virus infection in cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis)","volume":"81","author":"Zaucha","year":"2001","journal-title":"Lab. Investig."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wahl-Jensen, V., Cann, J.A., Rubins, K.H., Huggins, J.W., Fisher, R.W., Johnson, A.J., de Kok-Mercado, F., Larsen, T., Raymond, J.L., and Hensley, L.E. (2011). Progression of pathogenic events in cynomolgus macaques infected with variola virus. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0024832"},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"4359","article-title":"Pathogenesis of fulminant monkeypox with bacterial sepsis after experimental infection with West African monkeypox virus in a cynomolgus monkey","volume":"7","author":"Nagata","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Exp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-065X.1999.tb01286.x","article-title":"Immunomodulation by viruses: The myxoma virus story","volume":"168","author":"Nash","year":"1999","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2011.01.024","article-title":"Cowpox virus inhibits human dendritic cell immune function by nonlethal, nonproductive infection","volume":"412","author":"Hansen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-5822.2004.00423.x","article-title":"Technical knockout: Understanding poxvirus pathogenesis by selectively deleting viral immunomodulatory genes","volume":"6","author":"Johnston","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cell. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1993.1594","article-title":"The effects of serpin gene mutations on the distinctive pathobiology of cowpox and rabbitpox virus following intranasal inoculation of Balb\/c mice","volume":"197","author":"Thompson","year":"1993","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7698","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.83.20.7698","article-title":"Hemorrhage in lesions caused by cowpox virus is induced by a viral protein that is related to plasma protein inhibitors of serine proteases","volume":"83","author":"Pickup","year":"1986","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2014.00653","article-title":"Influenza virus and endothelial cells: A species specific relationship","volume":"5","author":"Short","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15196","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0405954101","article-title":"Exploring the potential of variola virus infection of cynomolgus macaques as a model for human smallpox","volume":"101","author":"Jahrling","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-1-10","article-title":"Susceptibility of different leukocyte cell types to Vaccinia virus infection","volume":"1","author":"Sanchez","year":"2004","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1300","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra020025","article-title":"Diagnosis and management of smallpox","volume":"346","author":"Breman","year":"2002","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"289","article-title":"Mouse models for studying orthopoxvirus respiratory infections","volume":"269","author":"Schriewer","year":"2004","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"Nathansan, N. (1997). Mousepox. Viral Pathogenesis, Lippincott-Raven."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-3542(01)00159-0","article-title":"Effects of cidofovir on the pathogenesis of a lethal vaccinia virus respiratory infection in mice","volume":"52","author":"Smee","year":"2001","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2761","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-71-11-2761","article-title":"Biological characterization of recombinant vaccinia viruses in mice infected by the respiratory route","volume":"71","author":"Williamson","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/9\/12\/363\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:51:36Z","timestamp":1760208696000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/9\/12\/363"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,28]]},"references-count":81,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,12]]}},"alternative-id":["v9120363"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v9120363","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1999-4915"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,28]]}}}