{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T02:48:02Z","timestamp":1783478882412,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":325,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,14]],"date-time":"2022-04-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1649894400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A significant part of the world population has been affected by the devastating SARS-CoV-2 infection. It has deleterious effects on mental and physical health and global economic conditions. Evidence suggests that the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection may result in immunopathology such as neutrophilia, lymphopenia, decreased response of type I interferon, monocyte, and macrophage dysregulation. Even though most individuals infected with the SARS-CoV-2 virus suffer mild symptoms similar to flu, severe illness develops in some cases, including dysfunction of multiple organs. Excessive production of different inflammatory cytokines leads to a cytokine storm in COVID-19 infection. The large quantities of inflammatory cytokines trigger several inflammation pathways through tissue cell and immune cell receptors. Such mechanisms eventually lead to complications such as acute respiratory distress syndrome, intravascular coagulation, capillary leak syndrome, failure of multiple organs, and, in severe cases, death. Thus, to devise an effective management plan for SARS-CoV-2 infection, it is necessary to comprehend the start and pathways of signaling for the SARS-CoV-2 infection-induced cytokine storm. This article discusses the current findings of SARS-CoV-2 related to immunopathology, the different paths of signaling and other cytokines that result in a cytokine storm, and biomarkers that can act as early signs of warning for severe illness. A detailed understanding of the cytokine storm may aid in the development of effective means for controlling the disease\u2019s immunopathology. In addition, noting the biomarkers and pathophysiology of severe SARS-CoV-2 infection as early warning signs can help prevent severe complications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines10040614","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,20]],"date-time":"2022-04-20T00:22:43Z","timestamp":1650414163000},"page":"614","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Surviving the Storm: Cytokine Biosignature in SARS-CoV-2 Severity Prediction"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7379-0822","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rahnuma","family":"Ahmad","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Medical College for Women and Hospital, Plot No 4 Road 8\/9, Sector-1, Dhaka 1230, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6124-7993","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mainul","family":"Haque","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Defence Health, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (National Defence University of Malaysia), Kem Perdana Sungai Besi, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2021). Coronavirus Disease (COVID-2019) Situation Reports, WHO Press, World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/emergencies\/diseases\/novel-coronavirus-2019\/situation-reports."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1866","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2100362","article-title":"New SARS-CoV-2 Variants\u2014Clinical, Public Health, and Vaccine Implications","volume":"384","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2021). Classification of Omicron (B.1.1.529): SARS-CoV-2 Variant of Concern, WHO Press, World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/26-11-2021-classification-of-omicron-(b.1.1.529)-sars-cov-2-variant-of-concern."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2022, March 09). SARS-CoV-2 Variant Classifications and Definitions, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/coronavirus\/2019-ncov\/variants\/variant-info.html."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(20)30304-0","article-title":"COVID-19-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome: Is a different approach to management warranted?","volume":"8","author":"Fan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)31305-2","article-title":"Histopathology and ultrastructural findings of fatal COVID-19 infections in Washington State: A case series","volume":"396","author":"Bradley","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"13665","article-title":"Signs and symptoms to determine if a patient presenting in primary care or hospital outpatient settings has COVID-19 disease","volume":"7","author":"Struyf","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30211-7","article-title":"Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: A descriptive study","volume":"395","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594495","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2020.594495","article-title":"Body Localization of ACE-2: On the Trail of the Keyhole of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"7","author":"Salamanna","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1456","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.120.317015","article-title":"Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2: SARS-CoV-2 Receptor and Regulator of the Renin-Angiotensin System: Celebrating the 20th Anniversary of the Discovery of ACE2","volume":"126","author":"Gheblawi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.04.027","article-title":"Specific ACE2 expression in small intestinal enterocytes may cause gastrointestinal symptoms and injury after 2019-nCoV infection","volume":"96","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2012-7","article-title":"A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin","volume":"579","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.02.052","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Cell Entry Depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and Is Blocked by a Clinically Proven Protease Inhibitor","volume":"181","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7001","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2002589117","article-title":"Enhanced isolation of SARS-CoV-2 by TMPRSS2-expressing cells","volume":"117","author":"Matsuyama","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.1863","article-title":"The role of pattern-recognition receptors in innate immunity: Update on Toll-like receptors","volume":"11","author":"Kawai","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2006.08.007","article-title":"Type I interferons in host defense","volume":"25","author":"Stetson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2020.03.037","article-title":"The pathogenesis and treatment of the \u2018Cytokine Storm\u2019 in COVID-19","volume":"80","author":"Ye","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1002\/art.41285","article-title":"On the Alert for Cytokine Storm: Immunopathology in COVID-19","volume":"72","author":"Henderson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30628-0","article-title":"COVID-19: Consider cytokine storm syndromes and immunosuppression","volume":"395","author":"Mehta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.3906\/sag-2004-168","article-title":"COVID-19, immune system response, hyper inflammation and repurposing antirheumatic drugs","volume":"50","author":"Tufan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Turk. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2020.06.017","article-title":"Cytokine Storms: Understanding COVID-19","volume":"53","author":"Mangalmurti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-021-00679-0","article-title":"The signal pathways and treatment of cytokine storm in COVID-19","volume":"6","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224ra25","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.3008226","article-title":"Efficacy and toxicity management of 19-28z CAR T cell therapy in B cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia","volume":"6","author":"Davila","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1509","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1215134","article-title":"Chimeric antigen receptor-modified T cells for acute lymphoid leukemia","volume":"368","author":"Grupp","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23ra19","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.3000678","article-title":"Targeting Robo4-dependent Slit signaling to survive the cytokine storm in sepsis and influenza","volume":"2","author":"London","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2431","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbmt.2019.07.027","article-title":"Severe Cytokine Release Syndrome after Haploidentical Peripheral Blood Stem Cell Transplantation","volume":"25","author":"Imus","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biol. Blood Marrow Transplant."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cll.2008.08.001","article-title":"Yin and yang of cytokine regulation in solid organ graft rejection and tolerance","volume":"28","author":"Wadia","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107087","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2020.107087","article-title":"Toll-like receptors in sepsis-associated cytokine storm and their endogenous negative regulators as future immunomodulatory targets","volume":"89","author":"Kumar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1007\/s00281-017-0639-8","article-title":"Cytokine storm and sepsis disease pathogenesis","volume":"39","author":"Chousterman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Semin. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"IQWiG (2022, March 09). The Innate and Adaptive Immune Systems, Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK279396\/."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1186\/s13223-018-0278-1","article-title":"An introduction to immunology and immunopathology","volume":"14","author":"Marshall","year":"2018","journal-title":"Allergy Asthma Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Alberts, B., Johnson, A., and Lewis, J. (2022, March 09). Molecular Biology of the Cell, Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK21070."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-021-01091-0","article-title":"Innate immunity: The first line of defense against SARS-CoV-2","volume":"23","author":"Diamond","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-021-00602-1","article-title":"Innate immune sensing of coronavirus and viral evasion strategies","volume":"53","author":"Kasuga","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.12912","article-title":"Intracellular innate immune receptors: Life inside the cell","volume":"297","author":"Kanneganti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-micro-092611-150203","article-title":"A virological view of innate immune recognition","volume":"66","author":"Iwasaki","year":"2012","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1159\/000503030","article-title":"Innate Immune Evasion by Human Respiratory RNA Viruses","volume":"12","author":"Kikkert","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Innate Immun."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2980","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2020.1802974","article-title":"Systemic innate and adaptive immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 as it relates to other coronaviruses","volume":"16","author":"Aldhamen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccin. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pulmoe.2021.03.008","article-title":"The immune response to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 immunopathology\u2014Current perspectives","volume":"27","author":"Boechat","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pulmonology"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2379","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.02379","article-title":"Pattern Recognition Receptors and the Host Cell Death Molecular Machinery","volume":"9","author":"Adjemian","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00046-08","article-title":"Pathogen recognition and inflammatory signaling in innate immune defenses","volume":"22","author":"Mogensen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"908","article-title":"Immunit\u00e9 adaptative contre le virus SARS-CoV-2 (Adaptive immunity against SARS-CoV-2)","volume":"36","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2009.09.017","article-title":"Adaptive immunity","volume":"125","author":"Bonilla","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0105-2896.2010.00906.x","article-title":"Adaptive immune responses mediated by natural killer cells","volume":"235","author":"Paust","year":"2010","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2021.01.007","article-title":"Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19","volume":"184","author":"Sette","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"fuab035","DOI":"10.1093\/femsre\/fuab035","article-title":"The Immunopathobiology of SARS-CoV-2 Infection","volume":"45","author":"Patel","year":"2021","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1949","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01949","article-title":"Overview of Immune Response During SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Lessons from the Past","volume":"11","author":"Shah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"2680160","article-title":"Fundamentals and Methods for T- and B-Cell Epitope Prediction","volume":"2017","author":"Reche","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cytogfr.2020.06.001","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 infection: The role of cytokines in COVID-19 disease","volume":"54","author":"Ruiz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cytokine Growth Factor Rev."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1441","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01441","article-title":"Immune Response, Inflammation, and the Clinical Spectrum of COVID-19","volume":"11","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14761","DOI":"10.14814\/phy2.14761","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 innate effector associations and viral load in early nasopharyngeal infection","volume":"9","author":"Liou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Physiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csbj.2021.07.023","article-title":"Immune evasion of SARS-CoV-2 from interferon antiviral system","volume":"19","author":"Min","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Struct. Biotechnol. J."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.2135","article-title":"Innate immune evasion by SARS-CoV-2: Comparison with SARS-CoV","volume":"30","author":"Bouayad","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-0331-4","article-title":"Pathological inflammation in patients with COVID-19: A key role for monocytes and macrophages","volume":"20","author":"Merad","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1111\/cei.13523","article-title":"Innate immunity during SARS-CoV-2: Evasion strategies and activation trigger hypoxia and vascular damage","volume":"202","author":"Amor","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"864","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2020.07.026","article-title":"Acute SARS-CoV-2 Infection Impairs Dendritic Cell and T Cell Responses","volume":"53","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1306","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.01306","article-title":"Role of Dendritic Cells in Natural Immune Control of HIV-1 Infection","volume":"10","author":"Yu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cai, G., Du, M., Boss\u00e9, Y., Albrecht, H., Qin, F., and Luo, X. (2021). Xiao, F. SARS-CoV-2 Impairs Dendritic Cells and Regulates DC-SIGN Gene Expression in Tissues. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22179228"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1122","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abm8108","article-title":"The immunology and immunopathology of COVID-19","volume":"375","author":"Merad","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563085","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.563085","article-title":"COVID-19: Molecular and Cellular Response","volume":"11","author":"Alipoor","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1038\/s41421-020-0168-9","article-title":"Immune cell profiling of COVID-19 patients in the recovery stage by single-cell sequencing","volume":"6","author":"Wen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Discov."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2018.00113","article-title":"Neutrophil: A Cell with Many Roles in Inflammation or Several Cell Types?","volume":"9","author":"Rosales","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1532","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1092385","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps kill bacteria","volume":"303","author":"Brinkmann","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e105896","DOI":"10.15252\/embj.2020105896","article-title":"Blood molecular markers associated with COVID-19 immunopathology and multi-organ damage","volume":"39","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.1585","article-title":"Clinical Characteristics of 138 Hospitalized Patients with 2019 Novel Coronavirus-Infected Pneumonia in Wuhan, China","volume":"323","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1070","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-0944-y","article-title":"A single-cell atlas of the peripheral immune response in patients with severe COVID-19","volume":"26","author":"Wilk","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2020.09.009","article-title":"Compartmental immunophenotyping in COVID-19 ARDS: A case series","volume":"147","author":"Ronit","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.08.001","article-title":"Severe COVID-19 Is Marked by a Dysregulated Myeloid Cell Compartment","volume":"182","author":"Reusch","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2015.01.017","article-title":"Pyruvate Kinase M2 Regulates Hif-1\u03b1 Activity and IL-1\u03b2 Induction. It Is a Critical Determinant of the Warburg Effect in LPS-Activated Macrophages","volume":"21","author":"Curtis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"812","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.202005-1583OC","article-title":"Characterization of the Inflammatory Response to Severe COVID-19 Illness","volume":"202","author":"McElvaney","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2013.01.005","article-title":"Neutrophils recruited to sites of infection protect from virus challenge by releasing neutrophil extracellular traps","volume":"13","author":"Jenne","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1186\/s12931-015-0221-7","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation characterizes stable and exacerbated COPD and correlates with airflow limitation","volume":"16","author":"Obermayer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-018-2290-8","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are increased in the alveolar spaces of patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia","volume":"22","author":"Mikacenic","year":"2018","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1097\/ALN.0000000000002619","article-title":"Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Are Elevated in Patients with Pneumonia-related Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome","volume":"130","author":"Bendib","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1708","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2002032","article-title":"Clinical Characteristics of Coronavirus Disease 2019 in China","volume":"382","author":"Guan","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20201129","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20201129","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2-triggered neutrophil extracellular traps mediate COVID-19 pathology","volume":"217","author":"Veras","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"e138999","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps in COVID-19","volume":"5","author":"Zuo","year":"2020","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14166","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-32576-y","article-title":"Respiratory Syncytial Virus induces the classical ROS-dependent NETosis through PAD-4 and necroptosis pathways activation","volume":"8","author":"Muraro","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2013.00001","article-title":"NET balancing: A problem in inflammatory lung diseases","volume":"4","author":"Cheng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8829674","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/8829674","article-title":"COVID-19, and Neutrophils: The Relationship between Hyperinflammation and Neutrophil Extracellular Traps","volume":"2020","author":"Borges","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa248","article-title":"Dysregulation of Immune Response in Patients with Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) in Wuhan, China","volume":"71","author":"Qin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1762","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa150","article-title":"Characteristics of Peripheral Lymphocyte Subset Alteration in COVID-19 Pneumonia","volume":"221","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-020-00426-x","article-title":"CD147-spike protein is a novel route for SARS-CoV-2 infection to host cells","volume":"5","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abc6027","article-title":"Impaired type I interferon activity and inflammatory responses in severe COVID-19 patients","volume":"369","author":"Hadjadj","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e21","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(20)30116-8","article-title":"Are patients with hypertension and diabetes mellitus at increased risk for COVID-19 infection?","volume":"8","author":"Fang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00827","article-title":"Reduction and Functional Exhaustion of T Cells in Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)","volume":"11","author":"Diao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1730","DOI":"10.1111\/all.14238","article-title":"Clinical characteristics of 140 patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 in Wuhan, China","volume":"75","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-020-00243-2","article-title":"COVID-19: Immunopathogenesis and Immunotherapeutics","volume":"5","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, H., Li, H., Guo, L., Liang, Y., Li, J., and Wang, X. (2020). Virulence and pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection in rhesus macaques: A nonhuman primate model of COVID-19 progression. PLoS Pathog., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1008949"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"894","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-020-0498-4","article-title":"Retraction Note to: SARS-CoV-2 infects T lymphocytes through its spike protein-mediated membrane fusion","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-018-0917-y","article-title":"SARS-Coronavirus Open Reading Frame-3a drives multimodal necrotic cell death","volume":"9","author":"Yue","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6346","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00090-07","article-title":"Induction of apoptosis by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 7a protein is dependent on its interaction with the Bcl-XL protein","volume":"81","author":"Tan","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-020-0148-4","article-title":"Lymphopenia predicts disease severity of COVID-19: A descriptive and predictive study","volume":"5","author":"Tan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-0308-3","article-title":"COVID-19: Immunopathology and its implications for therapy","volume":"20","author":"Cao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-020-0163-5","article-title":"Immune dysfunction leads to mortality and organ injury in patients with COVID-19 in China: Insights from ERS-COVID-19 study","volume":"5","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-021-00578-z","article-title":"Immunological mechanisms of vaccine-induced protection against COVID-19 in humans","volume":"21","author":"Sadarangani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2021.01.014","article-title":"B cell memory: Understanding COVID-19","volume":"54","author":"Quast","year":"2021","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1042\/EBC20160017","article-title":"The immune system","volume":"60","author":"Nicholson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Essays Biochem."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1787","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.01787","article-title":"Remembrance of Things Past: Long-Term B Cell Memory After Infection and Vaccination","volume":"10","author":"Palm","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shiakolas, A.R., Kramer, K.J., Johnson, N.V., Wall, S.C., Suryadevara, N., and Wrapp, D. Efficient discovery of SARS-CoV-2-neutralizing antibodies via B cell receptor sequencing and ligand blocking. Nat. Biotechnol., 2022.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-022-01232-2"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03207-w","article-title":"Evolution of antibody immunity to SARS-CoV-2","volume":"591","author":"Gaebler","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03647-4","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 infection induces long-lived bone marrow plasma cells in humans","volume":"595","author":"Turner","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(21)00676-9","article-title":"Protective immunity after recovery from SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"22","author":"Kojima","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u00c7\u00f6lkesen, F., Kepenek Kurt, E., Vatansev, H., Korkmaz, C., \u00c7\u00f6lkesen, F., and Y\u00fccel, F. (2022). Memory B cells and serum immunoglobulins are associated with disease severity and mortality in patients with COVID-19. Postgrad. Med. J.","DOI":"10.1136\/postgradmedj-2021-140540"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817905","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.817905","article-title":"Robust and Functional Immune Memory Up to 9 Months After SARS-CoV-2 Infection: A Southeast Asian Longitudinal Cohort","volume":"13","author":"Vo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2027","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa344","article-title":"Antibody Responses to SARS-CoV-2 in Patients with Novel Coronavirus Disease 2019","volume":"71","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.3389\/fmolb.2020.00157","article-title":"Immune Phenotyping Based on the Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte Ratio and IgG Level Predicts Disease Severity and Outcome for Patients with COVID-19","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Mol. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12994","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M117.795047","article-title":"Engineering the fragment crystallizable (Fc) region of human IgG1 multimers and monomers to fine-tune interactions with sialic acid-dependent receptors","volume":"292","author":"Blundell","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keeler, S.P., and Fox, J.M. (2021). Requirement of Fc-Fc Gamma Receptor Interaction for Antibody-Based Protection against Emerging Virus Infections. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13061037"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00811","article-title":"Understanding Fc Receptor Involvement in Inflammatory Diseases: From Mechanisms to New Therapeutic Tools","volume":"10","author":"Benhamou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00544","article-title":"Inside-Out Control of Fc-Receptors","volume":"10","author":"Koenderman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molimm.2004.07.034","article-title":"Activation of NK cell cytotoxicity","volume":"42","author":"Smyth","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00548","article-title":"Fc-Mediated Antibody Effector Functions During Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection and Disease","volume":"10","author":"Luytjes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00332","article-title":"Antibody-Dependent Cellular Phagocytosis in Antiviral Immune Responses","volume":"10","author":"Tay","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00281-21","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00281-21","article-title":"COVID-19 Severity Is Associated with Differential Antibody Fc-Mediated Innate Immune Functions","volume":"12","author":"Adeniji","year":"2021","journal-title":"MBio"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chan, C.E.Z., Seah, S.G.K., Chye, H., Massey, S., Torres, M., and Lim, A.P.C. (2021). The Fc-mediated effector functions of a potent SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody, SC31, isolated from an early convalescent COVID-19 patient, are essential for the optimal therapeutic efficacy of the antibody. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0253487"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-00410-0","article-title":"The role of IgG Fc receptors in antibody-dependent enhancement","volume":"20","author":"Bournazos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02015-19","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02015-19","article-title":"Molecular Mechanism for Antibody-Dependent Enhancement of Coronavirus Entry","volume":"94","author":"Wan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-2776(07)96005-8","article-title":"Fc-receptors as regulators of immunity","volume":"96","author":"Nimmerjahn","year":"2007","journal-title":"Adv. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_120","first-page":"20587384211050199","article-title":"A review: Antibody-dependent enhancement in COVID-19: The not so friendly side of antibodies","volume":"35","author":"Nicoletti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-042617-053119","article-title":"Nonclassical Monocytes in Health and Disease","volume":"37","author":"Narasimhan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1038\/s41421-020-00225-2","article-title":"The differential immune responses to COVID-19 in peripheral and lung revealed by single-cell RNA sequencing","volume":"6","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Discov."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2006.08.009","article-title":"Type I interferon [corrected] gene induction by the interferon regulatory factor family of transcription factors","volume":"25","author":"Honda","year":"2006","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2900","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.05738-11","article-title":"Sensing of RNA viruses: A review of innate immune receptors involved in recognizing RNA virus invasion","volume":"86","author":"Jensen","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2020.05.008","article-title":"Type I and Type III Interferons\u2014Induction, Signaling, Evasion, and Application to Combat COVID-19","volume":"27","author":"Park","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.04.026","article-title":"Imbalanced Host Response to SARS-CoV-2 Drives Development of COVID-19","volume":"181","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-020-00840-x","article-title":"Untuned antiviral immunity in COVID-19 revealed by temporal type I\/III interferon patterns and flu comparison","volume":"22","author":"Galani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01782-06","article-title":"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus open reading frame (ORF) 3b, ORF 6, and nucleocapsid proteins function as interferon antagonists","volume":"81","author":"Frieman","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16202","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M109.008227","article-title":"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus M protein inhibits type I interferon production by impeding the formation of TRAF3.TANK. TBK1\/IKKepsilon complex","volume":"284","author":"Siu","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Minakshi, R., Padhan, K., Rani, M., Khan, N., Ahmad, F., and Jameel, S. (2009). The SARS Coronavirus 3a protein causes endoplasmic reticulum stress and induces ligand-independent downregulation of the type 1 interferon receptor. PLoS ONE, 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0008342"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02143-16","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02143-16","article-title":"The Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Nucleocapsid Inhibits Type I Interferon Production by Interfering with TRIM25-Mediated RIG-I Ubiquitination","volume":"91","author":"Hu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10050","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01692-16","article-title":"Cell-Cell Sensing of Viral Infection by Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells","volume":"90","author":"Webster","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3012","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1117359109","article-title":"Plasmacytoid dendritic cells control T-cell response to chronic viral infection","volume":"109","author":"Lewis","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2020.04.017","article-title":"Heightened Innate Immune Responses in the Respiratory Tract of COVID-19 Patients","volume":"27","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2016.01.007","article-title":"Dysregulated Type I Interferon and Inflammatory Monocyte-Macrophage Responses Cause Lethal Pneumonia in SARS-CoV-Infected Mice","volume":"19","author":"Channappanavar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3625","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI126363","article-title":"IFN-I response timing relative to virus replication determines MERS coronavirus infection outcomes","volume":"129","author":"Channappanavar","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-020-05991-x","article-title":"Clinical predictors of mortality due to COVID-19 based on an analysis of data of 150 patients from Wuhan, China","volume":"46","author":"Ruan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2020.05.008","article-title":"Elevated levels of IL-6 and CRP predict the need for mechanical ventilation in COVID-19","volume":"146","author":"Herold","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1623","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-1038-6","article-title":"A dynamic COVID-19 immune signature includes associations with poor prognosis","volume":"26","author":"Laing","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1397","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chest.2020.06.006","article-title":"Tocilizumab Treatment for Cytokine Release Syndrome in Hospitalized Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019: Survival and Clinical Outcomes","volume":"158","author":"Price","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"992","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2020.04.009","article-title":"Complex Immune Dysregulation in COVID-19 Patients with Severe Respiratory Failure","volume":"27","author":"Netea","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2020.04.003","article-title":"COVID-19: A New Virus, but a Familiar Receptor and Cytokine Release Syndrome","volume":"52","author":"Hirano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a016295","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a016295","article-title":"IL-6 in inflammation, immunity, and disease","volume":"6","author":"Tanaka","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.2217\/imt-2016-0020","article-title":"Immunotherapeutic implications of IL-6 blockade for cytokine storm","volume":"8","author":"Tanaka","year":"2016","journal-title":"Immunotherapy"},{"key":"ref_145","unstructured":"Gulhar, R., Ashraf, M.A., and Jialal, I. (2021). Physiology, Acute Phase Reactants, StatPearls [Internet]."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1621","DOI":"10.1128\/MCB.21.5.1621-1632.2001","article-title":"Essential role of STAT3 in the control of the acute-phase response as revealed by inducible gene inactivation [correction of activation] in the liver","volume":"21","author":"Alonzi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Biol."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5676","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.172.9.5676","article-title":"Differential regulation of neutrophil-activating chemokines by IL-6 and its soluble receptor isoforms","volume":"172","author":"McLoughlin","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"838","DOI":"10.1161\/01.ATV.0000016249.96529.B8","article-title":"Inflammatory mediators and cell adhesion molecules as indicators of severity of atherosclerosis: The Rotterdam Study","volume":"22","author":"Bots","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1007\/s11596-013-1168-x","article-title":"Inhibitory effects of suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 on inflammatory cytokine expression and migration and proliferation of IL-6\/IFN-\u03b3-induced vascular smooth muscle cells","volume":"33","author":"Xiang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Huazhong Univ. Sci. Technol. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1089\/jir.2008.0027","article-title":"Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1): An overview","volume":"29","author":"Deshmane","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Interferon Cytokine Res."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abb8925","article-title":"Cytokine release syndrome in severe COVID-19","volume":"368","author":"Moore","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1267","article-title":"A crucial role of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in SARS coronavirus-induced lung injury","volume":"11","author":"Kuba","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1198","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01248-09","article-title":"Differential downregulation of ACE2 by the spike proteins of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus and human coronavirus NL63","volume":"84","author":"Glowacka","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1195","DOI":"10.1161\/01.RES.87.12.1195","article-title":"Role of NAD(P)H oxidase in angiotensin II-induced JAK\/STAT signaling and cytokine induction","volume":"87","author":"Schieffer","year":"2000","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Recinos A 3rd LeJeune, W.S., Sun, H., Lee, C.Y., and Tieu, B.C. (2007). Angiotensin II induces IL-6 expression and the Jak-STAT3 pathway in aortic adventitia of LDL receptor-deficient mice. Atherosclerosis, 194, 125\u2013133.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2006.10.013"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-020-0191-1","article-title":"Immune response in COVID-19: Addressing a pharmacological challenge by targeting pathways triggered by SARS-CoV-2","volume":"5","author":"Catanzaro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1038\/80868","article-title":"Interleukin-7 mediates the homeostasis of na\u00efve and memory CD8 T cells in vivo","volume":"1","author":"Schluns","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1038\/ni946","article-title":"Interleukin 7 and T cell receptor signals regulate homeostasis of CD4 memory cells","volume":"4","author":"Seddon","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6571","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.174.11.6571","article-title":"The many faces of IL-7: From lymphopoiesis to peripheral T cell maintenance","volume":"174","author":"Fry","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8732","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.161126098","article-title":"IL-7 is critical for homeostatic proliferation and survival of naive T cells","volume":"98","author":"Tan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30183-5","article-title":"Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China","volume":"395","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2711","article-title":"The regulation of IL-10 production by immune cells","volume":"10","author":"Saraiva","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2020.10.012","article-title":"A Potential Role of Interleukin 10 in COVID-19 Pathogenesis","volume":"42","author":"Lu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trends Immunol."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2020.1770129","article-title":"Profiling serum cytokines in COVID-19 patients reveals IL-6 and IL-10 are disease severity predictors","volume":"9","author":"Han","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e139834","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.139834","article-title":"Longitudinal COVID-19 profiling associates IL-1RA and IL-10 with disease severity and RANTES with mild disease","volume":"5","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"722","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.2366","article-title":"IL-12 family cytokines: Immunological playmakers","volume":"13","author":"Vignali","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1038\/ni0602-506","article-title":"Regulation of T(H)1 differentiation--controlling the controllers","volume":"3","author":"Paul","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5451","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1490019","article-title":"IL-2: The first effective immunotherapy for human cancer","volume":"192","author":"Rosenberg","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19771","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.RA118.003668","article-title":"Enhanced interaction between SEC2 mutant and TCR V\u03b2 induces MHC II-independent activation of T cells via PKC\u03b8\/NF-\u03baB and IL-2R\/STAT5 signaling pathways","volume":"293","author":"Fu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.12163","article-title":"The importance of regulatory T-cell heterogeneity in maintaining self-tolerance","volume":"259","author":"Yuan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-020-2636-4","article-title":"The inhibition of IL-2\/IL-2R gives rise to CD8+ T cell and lymphocyte decrease through JAK1-STAT5 in critical patients with COVID-19 pneumonia","volume":"11","author":"Shi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2800","article-title":"Innate IL-17-producing cells: The sentinels of the immune system","volume":"10","author":"Cua","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1993","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/kex301","article-title":"Secukinumab sustains improvement in signs and symptoms of psoriatic arthritis: 2-year results from the phase 3 FUTURE 2 study","volume":"56","author":"McInnes","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-0328-z","article-title":"COVID-19: A case for inhibiting IL-17?","volume":"20","author":"Pacha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1007\/s11010-020-03935-z","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 mediated lung inflammatory responses in host: Targeting the cytokine storm for therapeutic interventions","volume":"476","author":"Asrani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pasquereau, S., Kumar, A., and Herbein, G. (2017). Targeting TNF, and TNF Receptor Pathway in HIV-1 Infection: From Immune Activation to Viral Reservoirs. Viruses, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/v9040064"},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120758","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2020.120758","article-title":"Electrochemical immunosensors for the detection of cytokine tumor necrosis factor-alpha: A review","volume":"211","author":"Filik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1038\/nri1184","article-title":"Signaling pathways of the TNF superfamily: A double-edged sword","volume":"3","author":"Aggarwal","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm3737","article-title":"Regulated necrosis: The expanding network of non-apoptotic cell death pathways","volume":"15","author":"Linkermann","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6800","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.onc.1209938","article-title":"Current insights into the regulation of programmed cell death by NF-kappaB","volume":"25","author":"Dutta","year":"2006","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2588-y","article-title":"Longitudinal analyses reveal immunological misfiring in severe COVID-19","volume":"584","author":"Lucas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2020-218323","article-title":"Preliminary predictive criteria for COVID-19 cytokine storm","volume":"80","author":"Caricchio","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciab437","article-title":"Increased Peripheral Blood Neutrophil Activation Phenotypes and Neutrophil Extracellular Trap Formation in Critically Ill Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Patients: A Case Series and Review of the Literature","volume":"74","author":"Moshensky","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tips.2020.06.007","article-title":"Targeting JAK-STAT Signaling to Control Cytokine Release Syndrome in COVID-19","volume":"41","author":"Luo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1446","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01446","article-title":"The COVID-19 Cytokine Storm; What We Know So Far","volume":"11","author":"Taeimah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1128\/MMBR.05015-11","article-title":"Into the eye of the cytokine storm","volume":"76","author":"Tisoncik","year":"2012","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1444","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa387","article-title":"Definition and Risks of Cytokine Release Syndrome in 11 Critically Ill COVID-19 Patients with Pneumonia: Analysis of Disease Characteristics","volume":"222","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2620","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI137244","article-title":"Clinical and immunological features of severe and moderate coronavirus disease 2019","volume":"130","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1100500","article-title":"Serum amyloid A activates the NLRP3 inflammasome and promotes Th17 allergic asthma in mice","volume":"187","author":"Ather","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2017.01.022","article-title":"NLRP3 inflammasome blockade reduces liver inflammation and fibrosis in experimental NASH in mice","volume":"66","author":"Mridha","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1002\/path.2067","article-title":"Expression of elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in SARS-CoV-infected ACE2+ cells in SARS patients: Relation to the acute lung injury and pathogenesis of SARS","volume":"210","author":"He","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154895","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cyto.2019.154895","article-title":"MERS-CoV infection is associated with downregulation of genes encoding Th1 and Th2 cytokines\/chemokines and elevated inflammatory innate immune response in the lower respiratory tract","volume":"126","author":"Alosaimi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2679","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.055533-0","article-title":"Delayed induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines and suppression of innate antiviral response by the novel Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus: Implications for pathogenesis and treatment","volume":"94","author":"Lau","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2020.108393","article-title":"The use of anti-inflammatory drugs in the treatment of people with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): The Perspectives of clinical immunologists from China","volume":"214","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1156995","article-title":"Innate immune activation through Nalp3 inflammasome sensing of asbestos and silica","volume":"320","author":"Dostert","year":"2008","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9035","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0803933105","article-title":"The Nalp3 inflammasome is essential for the development of silicosis","volume":"105","author":"Cassel","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2871","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M608083200","article-title":"ATP activates a reactive oxygen species-dependent oxidative stress response and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines in macrophages","volume":"282","author":"Cruz","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"963","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2016.10.026","article-title":"GM-CSF: From Growth Factor to Central Mediator of Tissue Inflammation","volume":"45","author":"Becher","year":"2016","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1977","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20131199","article-title":"Alveolar macrophages develop from fetal monocytes that differentiate into long-lived cells in the first week of life via GM-CSF","volume":"210","author":"Guilliams","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20190945","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20190945","article-title":"GM-CSF in inflammation","volume":"217","author":"Hamilton","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.4103\/0975-7406.76489","article-title":"Acute-phase proteins: As diagnostic tool","volume":"3","author":"Jain","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Bioallied Sci."},{"key":"ref_202","first-page":"i","article-title":"Biomarkers for The Detection of SARS-CoV2-Virus and in the Prediction of COVID-19 Infection Severity","volume":"12","author":"Yusof","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. App. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e926393","DOI":"10.12659\/MSM.926393","article-title":"A Retrospective Study of the C-Reactive Protein to Lymphocyte Ratio and Disease Severity in 108 Patients with Early COVID-19 Pneumonia from January to March 2020 Wuhan, China","volume":"26","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Monit."},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5975","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-85426-9","article-title":"Myoglobin and C-reactive protein are efficient and reliable early predictors of COVID-19 associated mortality","volume":"11","author":"Ali","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kint.2020.05.013","article-title":"The case of complement activation in COVID-19 multiorgan impact","volume":"98","author":"Noris","year":"2020","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"720363","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.720363","article-title":"Update Advances on C-Reactive Protein in COVID-19 and Other Viral Infections","volume":"12","author":"Luan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyab012","article-title":"The role of C-reactive protein as a prognostic marker in COVID-19","volume":"50","author":"Stringer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2020.04.006","article-title":"Association Between Hypoxemia and Mortality in Patients with COVID-19","volume":"95","author":"Xie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medmal.2020.03.007","article-title":"C-reactive protein levels in the early stage of COVID-19","volume":"50","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Mal. Infect."},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1080\/10408363.2018.1529734","article-title":"D-dimer: Preanalytical, analytical, post-analytical variables, and clinical applications","volume":"55","author":"Favresse","year":"2018","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Clin. Lab. Sci."},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1093\/labmed\/lmw001","article-title":"Widely Used Types and Clinical Applications of D-Dimer Assay","volume":"47","author":"Riley","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Poudel, A., Poudel, Y., Adhikari, A., Aryal, B.B., Dangol, D., and Bajracharya, T. (2021). D-dimer as a biomarker for assessment of COVID-19 prognosis: D-dimer levels on admission and its role in predicting disease outcome in hospitalized patients with COVID-19. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0256744"},{"key":"ref_213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1186\/s40560-020-00466-z","article-title":"D-dimer as a biomarker for disease severity and mortality in COVID-19 patients: A case-control study","volume":"8","author":"Yao","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Intensive Care"},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1421","DOI":"10.1111\/jth.14830","article-title":"Prevalence of venous thromboembolism in patients with severe novel coronavirus pneumonia","volume":"18","author":"Cui","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Thromb. Haemost."},{"key":"ref_215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1564","DOI":"10.1111\/all.14364","article-title":"Immune response to SARS-CoV-2 and mechanisms of immunopathological changes in COVID-19","volume":"75","author":"Azkur","year":"2020","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_216","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1007\/s12015-020-09987-4","article-title":"Is COVID-19 a New Hematologic Disease?","volume":"17","author":"Debuc","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stem Cell Rev. Rep."},{"key":"ref_217","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpha.2020.03.001","article-title":"Molecular immune pathogenesis and diagnosis of COVID-19","volume":"10","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Anal."},{"key":"ref_218","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105866","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clineuro.2020.105866","article-title":"Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in neurology and neurosurgery: A scoping review of the early literature","volume":"193","author":"Wilson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_219","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cytogfr.2020.05.002","article-title":"COVID-19: Pathogenesis, cytokine storm, and therapeutic potential of interferons","volume":"53","author":"Nile","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cytokine Growth Factor Rev."},{"key":"ref_220","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2255","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra2026131","article-title":"Cytokine Storm","volume":"383","author":"Fajgenbaum","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_221","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2735","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.26826","article-title":"Role of Toll-like receptors in the pathogenesis of COVID-19","volume":"93","author":"Khanmohammadi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_222","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1765","DOI":"10.1111\/1440-1681.13354","article-title":"A role for retinoids in the treatment of COVID-19?","volume":"47","author":"Trasino","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_223","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-020-00602-7","article-title":"Regulation of RIG-I-like receptor-mediated signaling: Interaction between host and viral factors","volume":"18","author":"Onomoto","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_224","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5475","DOI":"10.2147\/JIR.S329697","article-title":"Comparison of the Characteristics of Cytokine Storm and Immune Response Induced by SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2 Infections","volume":"14","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Inflamm. Res."},{"key":"ref_225","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-pathol-020117-043625","article-title":"Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis","volume":"13","author":"Berliner","year":"2018","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_226","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1018","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa063842","article-title":"Cytokine storm in a phase 1 trial of the anti-CD28 monoclonal antibody TGN1412","volume":"355","author":"Suntharalingam","year":"2006","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_227","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"598400","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2020.598400","article-title":"Vascular Manifestations of COVID-19\u2014Thromboembolism and Microvascular Dysfunction","volume":"7","author":"Roberts","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_228","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1603","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-020-06088-1","article-title":"Understanding pathophysiology of hemostasis disorders in critically ill patients with COVID-19","volume":"46","author":"Joly","year":"2020","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_229","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.00636-12","article-title":"Targeting the \u201ccytokine storm\u201d for therapeutic benefit","volume":"20","author":"Harrison","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Vaccine Immunol."},{"key":"ref_230","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e57417","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.57417","article-title":"Integration of IL-2 and IL-4 signals coordinates divergent regulatory T cell responses and drives therapeutic efficacy","volume":"10","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"ref_231","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2003006","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.03006-2020","article-title":"Confronting the controversy: Interleukin-6 and the COVID-19 cytokine storm syndrome","volume":"56","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_232","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.12605","article-title":"Suppression of inflammation and acquired immunity by IL-37","volume":"281","author":"Cavalli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_233","first-page":"21","article-title":"Gross examination report of a COVID-19 death autopsy","volume":"36","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Fa Yi Xue Za Zhi"},{"key":"ref_234","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kint.2020.04.003","article-title":"Renal histopathological analysis of 26 postmortem findings of patients with COVID-19 in China","volume":"98","author":"Su","year":"2020","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_235","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.7326\/M20-2003","article-title":"Autopsy Findings and Venous Thromboembolism in Patients With COVID-19: A Prospective Cohort Study","volume":"173","author":"Wichmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_236","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(20)30076-X","article-title":"Pathological findings of COVID-19 associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome","volume":"8","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_237","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1466","DOI":"10.1097\/MEG.0000000000001792","article-title":"Kinetic patterns of liver enzyme elevation with COVID-19 in the USA","volume":"32","author":"Da","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_238","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117788","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2020.117788","article-title":"The role of biomarkers in diagnosis of COVID-19\u2014A systematic review","volume":"254","author":"Kermali","year":"2020","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_239","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.5603\/ARM.a2022.0016","article-title":"Clinical significance of basic laboratory parameters in predicting the use of various methods of oxygen supplementation in COVID-19","volume":"90","author":"Tobiczyk","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_240","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-021-01593-1","article-title":"Liver injury in COVID-19: Clinical features and treatment management","volume":"18","author":"Yu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_241","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lehmann, A., Prosch, H., Zehetmayer, S., Gysan, M.R., Bernitzky, D., Vonbank, K., Idzko, M., and Gompelmann, D. (2021). Impact of persistent D-dimer elevation following recovery from COVID-19. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.congress-2021.OA90"},{"key":"ref_242","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1002\/rth2.12372","article-title":"A proposal for staging COVID-19 coagulopathy","volume":"4","author":"Thachil","year":"2020","journal-title":"Res. Pract. Thromb. Haemost."},{"key":"ref_243","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medcli.2020.07.043","article-title":"Lactate dehydrogenase, COVID-19 and mortality","volume":"156","author":"Bartziokas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Med. Clin."},{"key":"ref_244","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1722","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajem.2020.05.073","article-title":"Lactate dehydrogenase levels predict coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) severity and mortality: A pooled analysis","volume":"38","author":"Henry","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_245","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajem.2020.11.025","article-title":"Lactate dehydrogenase level as a COVID-19 severity marker","volume":"45","author":"Szarpak","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_246","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2021.0107","article-title":"Researchers Investigate What COVID-19 Does to the Heart","volume":"325","author":"Abbasi","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_247","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjcard.2020.09.060","article-title":"Northwell Health COVID-19 Research Consortium. Usefulness of Elevated Troponin to Predict Death in Patients with COVID-19 and Myocardial Injury","volume":"138","author":"Majure","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_248","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cardfail.2020.04.009","article-title":"Elevated Troponin in Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019: Possible Mechanisms","volume":"26","author":"Tersalvi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Card. Fail."},{"key":"ref_249","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melo, A.K.G., Milby, K.M., Caparroz, A.L.M.A., Pinto, A.C.P.N., Santos, R.R.P., Rocha, A.P., Ferreira, G.A., Souza, V.A., Valadares, L.D.A., and Vieira, R.M.R.A. (2021). Biomarkers of cytokine storm as red flags for severe and fatal COVID-19 cases: A living systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0253894"},{"key":"ref_250","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745515","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.745515","article-title":"Basic Predictive Risk Factors for Cytokine Storms in COVID-19 Patients","volume":"12","author":"Shcherbak","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_251","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4358","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.26951","article-title":"The inflammatory markers of multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) and adolescents associated with COVID-19: A meta-analysis","volume":"93","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_252","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155543","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cyto.2021.155543","article-title":"Serum IL-6: A potential biomarker of mortality among SARS-CoV-2 infected patients in Mexico","volume":"143","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"key":"ref_253","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1281","DOI":"10.7150\/ijms.46614","article-title":"Factors associated with death outcome in patients with severe coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19): A case-control study","volume":"17","author":"Pan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_254","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-020-02571-x","article-title":"Serum interleukin-6 is an indicator for severity in 901 patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection: A cohort study","volume":"18","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_255","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gupta, A., Marzook, H., and Ahmad, F. (2022). Comorbidities and clinical complications associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection: An overview. Clin. Exp. Med., 1\u201319.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10238-022-00821-4"},{"key":"ref_256","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1833","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2020.07.014","article-title":"COVID-19, and comorbidities: Deleterious impact on infected patients","volume":"13","author":"Ejaz","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_257","first-page":"11","article-title":"Prevalence of Comorbidities in Survivors and Non-Survivors of Severe COVID-19 at a Dedicated COVID Care Centre","volume":"70","author":"Siddiqi","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Assoc. Physicians India"},{"key":"ref_258","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108651","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2020.108651","article-title":"Interrelations between COVID-19 and other disorders","volume":"224","author":"Gasmi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_259","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramatillah, D.L., Gan, S.H., Pratiwy, I., Syed Sulaiman, S.A., Jaber, A.A.S., and Jusnita, N. (2022). Impact of cytokine storm on severity of COVID-19 disease in a private hospital in West Jakarta prior to vaccination. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0262438"},{"key":"ref_260","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2016.01.007","article-title":"Hypertension and aging","volume":"26","author":"Buford","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_261","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6809703","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/6809703","article-title":"The Role of AGE\/RAGE Signaling in Diabetes-Mediated Vascular Calcification","volume":"2016","author":"Kay","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Res."},{"key":"ref_262","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117900","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2020.117900","article-title":"The immune system and COVID-19: Friend or foe?","volume":"256","author":"Yazdanpanah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_263","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2021.119201","article-title":"COVID-19, cytokines, inflammation, and spices: How are they related?","volume":"284","author":"Kunnumakkara","year":"2021","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_264","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.thromres.2020.04.013","article-title":"Incidence of thrombotic complications in critically ill ICU patients with COVID-19","volume":"191","author":"Klok","year":"2020","journal-title":"Thromb. Res."},{"key":"ref_265","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1094","DOI":"10.1111\/jth.14817","article-title":"Anticoagulant treatment is associated with decreased mortality in severe coronavirus disease 2019 patients with coagulopathy","volume":"18","author":"Tang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Thromb. Haemost."},{"key":"ref_266","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1743","DOI":"10.1111\/jth.14869","article-title":"High incidence of venous thromboembolic events in anticoagulated severe COVID-19 patients","volume":"18","author":"Llitjos","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Thromb. Haemost."},{"key":"ref_267","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.thromres.2020.06.029","article-title":"The hypercoagulable state in COVID-19: Incidence, pathophysiology, and management","volume":"194","author":"Diamond","year":"2020","journal-title":"Thromb. Res."},{"key":"ref_268","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1038\/s41584-020-0474-5","article-title":"Emerging evidence of a COVID-19 thrombotic syndrome has treatment implications","volume":"16","author":"Merrill","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_269","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1111\/jth.14768","article-title":"Abnormal coagulation parameters are associated with poor prognosis in patients with novel coronavirus pneumonia","volume":"18","author":"Tang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Thromb. Haemost."},{"key":"ref_270","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600592","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2020.600592","article-title":"D-Dimer as a Prognostic Indicator in Critically Ill Patients Hospitalized with COVID-19 in Leishenshan Hospital, Wuhan, China","volume":"11","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_271","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0262600","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0262600","article-title":"Thromboelastometry demonstrates endogenous coagulation activation in nonsevere and severe COVID-19 patients and has applicability as a decision algorithm for intervention","volume":"17","author":"Aires","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref_272","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-0311-8","article-title":"The trinity of COVID-19: Immunity, inflammation, and intervention","volume":"20","author":"Tay","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_273","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2202","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI137647","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2: A storm is raging","volume":"130","author":"Pedersen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_274","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Magadum, A., and Kishore, R. (2020). Cardiovascular Manifestations of COVID-19 Infection. Cells, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells9112508"},{"key":"ref_275","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1002\/ejhf.1828","article-title":"Myocardial localization of coronavirus in COVID-19 cardiogenic shock","volume":"22","author":"Tavazzi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_276","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"m1091","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.m1091","article-title":"Clinical characteristics of 113 deceased patients with coronavirus disease 2019: Retrospective study","volume":"368","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_277","first-page":"9","article-title":"Cardiovascular Complications of COVID-19 and Associated Concerns: A Review","volume":"37","author":"Yu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Cardiol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_278","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2176","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.2176","article-title":"COVID-19, and kidney injury: Pathophysiology and molecular mechanisms","volume":"31","author":"Ahmadian","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_279","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2134","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.2134","article-title":"COVID-19: Time for a paradigm change","volume":"30","author":"Buonaguro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_280","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6641","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.27234","article-title":"Critical roles of cytokine storm and secondary bacterial infection in acute kidney injury development in COVID-19: A multi-center retrospective cohort study","volume":"93","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_281","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2749","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI138871","article-title":"Kidney diseases in the time of COVID-19: Major challenges to patient care","volume":"130","author":"Rabb","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_282","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E119","DOI":"10.1148\/radiol.2020201187","article-title":"COVID-19-associated Acute Hemorrhagic Necrotizing Encephalopathy: Imaging Features","volume":"296","author":"Poyiadji","year":"2020","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"ref_283","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shehata, G.A., Lord, K.C., Grudzinski, M.C., Elsayed, M., Abdelnaby, R., and Elshabrawy, H.A. (2021). Neurological Complications of COVID-19: Underlying Mechanisms and Management. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22084081"},{"key":"ref_284","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1864","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.31480","article-title":"Abnormal Liver Function Tests in Patients with COVID-19: Relevance and Potential Pathogenesis","volume":"72","author":"Bertolini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_285","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.14218\/JCTH.2020.00018","article-title":"COVID-19 and Liver Dysfunction: Current Insights and Emergent Therapeutic Strategies","volume":"8","author":"Feng","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Transl. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_286","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1007\/s12072-020-10071-9","article-title":"Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and the liver: A comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"14","author":"Kumar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hepatol. Int."},{"key":"ref_287","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-1253(20)30126-6","article-title":"Manifestations and prognosis of gastrointestinal and liver involvement in patients with COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"5","author":"Mao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_288","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e42","DOI":"10.1097\/MEG.0000000000002034","article-title":"Cytokine-induced liver injury in coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19): Untangling the knots","volume":"33","author":"Anirvan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_289","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2128","DOI":"10.1038\/s41379-020-0603-3","article-title":"A systematic review of pathological findings in COVID-19: A pathophysiological timeline and possible mechanisms of disease progression","volume":"33","author":"Polak","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mod. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_290","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1367","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-020-02734-1","article-title":"COVID-19, and drug-induced liver injury: A problem of plenty or a petty point?","volume":"94","author":"Boeckmans","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_291","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1002\/ygh2.455","article-title":"Liver injury, SARS-CoV-2 infection, and COVID-19: What physicians should really know?","volume":"3","author":"Licata","year":"2021","journal-title":"GastroHep"},{"key":"ref_292","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1186\/s43066-021-00082-y","article-title":"The risks of liver injury in COVID-19 patients and pharmacological management to reduce or prevent the damage induced","volume":"11","author":"Vitiello","year":"2021","journal-title":"Egypt. Liver J."},{"key":"ref_293","unstructured":"Hu, K., Patel, J., and Swiston, C. (2022, March 09). Ophthalmic Manifestations of Coronavirus (COVID-19), StatPearls [Internet], Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK556093\/."},{"key":"ref_294","first-page":"103","article-title":"Ocular Manifestations of COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"16","author":"Nasiri","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Ophthalmic Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_295","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2021.102191","article-title":"Ocular manifestations in COVID-19 patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"44","author":"Zhong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Travel Med. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_296","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1959","DOI":"10.1007\/s00417-020-04777-7","article-title":"Ocular manifestations of coronavirus disease 2019","volume":"258","author":"Ozates","year":"2020","journal-title":"Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_297","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1708","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01708","article-title":"Cytokine Storm in COVID-19: The Current Evidence and Treatment Strategies","volume":"11","author":"Tang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_298","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10322","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.10322","article-title":"The efficacy of IL-6 inhibitor Tocilizumab in reducing severe COVID-19 mortality: A systematic review","volume":"8","author":"Kaye","year":"2020","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_299","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586221","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2020.586221","article-title":"Addition of Tocilizumab to the Standard of Care Reduces Mortality in Severe COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"7","author":"Boregowda","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"ref_300","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1002\/phar.2627","article-title":"Beneficial and harmful outcomes of tocilizumab in severe COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"41","author":"Forero","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pharmacotherapy"},{"key":"ref_301","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.09.1486","article-title":"Beneficial effect of corticosteroids in preventing mortality in patients receiving tocilizumab to treat severe COVID-19 illness","volume":"101","author":"Ronda","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_302","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734838","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2021.734838","article-title":"Prompt Reduction in CRP, IL-6, IFN-\u03b3, IP-10, and MCP-1 and a Relatively Low Basal Ratio of Ferritin\/CRP Is Possibly Associated with the Efficacy of Tocilizumab Monotherapy in Severely to Critically Ill Patients with COVID-19","volume":"8","author":"Hashimoto","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"ref_303","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2866","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.26165","article-title":"Can steroids reverse the severe COVID-19 induced \u201ccytokine storm\u201d?","volume":"92","author":"Kolilekas","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_304","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629193","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.629193","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Causes a Different Cytokine Response Compared to Other Cytokine Storm-Causing Respiratory Viruses in Severely Ill Patients","volume":"12","author":"Olbei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_305","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705214","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2021.705214","article-title":"Management of Patients with Glucocorticoid-Related Diseases and COVID-19","volume":"12","author":"Chifu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_306","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1159\/000512063","article-title":"Early Use of Corticosteroid May Prolong SARS-CoV-2 Shedding in Non-Intensive Care Unit Patients with COVID-19 Pneumonia: A Multicenter, Single-Blind, Randomized Control Trial","volume":"100","author":"Tang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Respiration"},{"key":"ref_307","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ranjbar, K., Moghadami, M., Mirahmadizadeh, A., Fallahi, M.J., Khaloo, V., and Shahriarirad, R. (2021). Methylprednisolone or dexamethasone, which one is superior corticosteroid in the treatment of hospitalized COVID-19 patients: A triple-blinded randomized controlled trial. BMC Infect. Dis., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-021-06045-3"},{"key":"ref_308","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1007\/s40618-020-01266-w","article-title":"COVID-19 infection and glucocorticoids: Update from the Italian Society of Endocrinology Expert Opinion on steroid replacement in adrenal insufficiency","volume":"43","author":"Isidori","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol. Investig."},{"key":"ref_309","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2021.119124","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 infection: The role of PD-1\/PD-L1 and CTLA-4 axis","volume":"270","author":"Aghbash","year":"2021","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_310","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e71","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(21)00285-X","article-title":"Cytokine adsorption and ECMO in patients with COVID-19","volume":"9","author":"Nardelli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_311","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e69","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(21)00276-9","article-title":"Cytokine adsorption and ECMO in patients with COVID-19","volume":"9","author":"Rybalko","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_312","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1089\/mab.2020.0041","article-title":"How IvIg Can Mitigate COVID-19 Disease: A Symmetrical Immune Network Model","volume":"40","author":"Kohler","year":"2021","journal-title":"Monoclon. Antibodies Immunodiagn. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_313","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1660","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01660","article-title":"High-Dose Intravenous Immunoglobulins in the Treatment of Severe Acute Viral Pneumonia: The Known Mechanisms and Clinical Effects","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_314","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105982","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2020.105982","article-title":"Cytokine storm and immunomodulatory therapy in COVID-19: Role of chloroquine and anti-IL-6 monoclonal antibodies","volume":"55","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_315","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829521","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2022.829521","article-title":"Therapeutic Strategies for COVID-19 Lung Disease in Children","volume":"10","author":"Gatti","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_316","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731847","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.731847","article-title":"Immunotherapy Summary for Cytokine Storm in COVID-19","volume":"12","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_317","first-page":"423","article-title":"Monoclonal antibody therapy in COVID-19","volume":"35","author":"Conti","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Biol. Regul. Homeost. Agents"},{"key":"ref_318","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.1111\/cts.12880","article-title":"The Potential of Low Molecular Weight Heparin to Mitigate Cytokine Storm in Severe COVID-19 Patients: A Retrospective Cohort Study","volume":"13","author":"Shi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_319","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1307","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2020.01307","article-title":"The Potential Role of Heparin in Patients with COVID-19: Beyond the Anticoagulant Effect. A Review","volume":"11","author":"Gozzo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_320","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579886","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2020.579886","article-title":"Use of Enoxaparin to Counteract COVID-19 Infection and Reduce Thromboembolic Venous Complications: A Review of the Current Evidence","volume":"11","author":"Drago","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_321","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1152","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2020.3313","article-title":"Is a \u201cCytokine Storm\u201d Relevant to COVID-19?","volume":"180","author":"Sinha","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_322","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(14)70097-9","article-title":"Subphenotypes in acute respiratory distress syndrome: Latent class analysis of data from two randomized controlled trials","volume":"2","author":"Calfee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_323","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100743","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2021.100743","article-title":"Clinical outcomes of different therapeutic options for COVID-19 in two Chinese case cohorts: A propensity-score analysis","volume":"32","author":"Wong","year":"2021","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_324","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1014","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.1944","article-title":"IL-37 is a fundamental inhibitor of innate immunity","volume":"11","author":"Nold","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_325","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.2406","article-title":"From IL-2 to IL-37: The expanding spectrum of anti-inflammatory cytokines","volume":"13","author":"Banchereau","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."}],"container-title":["Vaccines"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-393X\/10\/4\/614\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:54:25Z","timestamp":1760136865000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-393X\/10\/4\/614"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,14]]},"references-count":325,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]}},"alternative-id":["vaccines10040614"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/vaccines10040614","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-393X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-393X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,14]]}}}