{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,19]],"date-time":"2026-10-19T11:55:59Z","timestamp":1792410959348,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":224,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,10]],"date-time":"2022-05-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1652140800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft DFG","award":["No OS583\/1-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No OS583\/1-1"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Many bacterial infections are major health problems worldwide, and treatment of many of these infectious diseases is becoming increasingly difficult due to the development of antibiotic resistance, which is a major threat. Prophylactic vaccines against these bacterial pathogens are urgently needed. This is also true for bacterial infections that are still neglected, even though they affect a large part of the world\u2019s population, especially under poor hygienic conditions. One example is typhus, a life-threatening disease also known as \u201cwar plague\u201d caused by Rickettsia prowazekii, which could potentially come back in a war situation such as the one in Ukraine. However, vaccination against bacterial infections is a challenge. In general, bacteria are much more complex organisms than viruses and as such are more difficult targets. Unlike comparatively simple viruses, bacteria possess a variety of antigens whose immunogenic potential is often unknown, and it is unclear which antigen can elicit a protective and long-lasting immune response. Several vaccines against extracellular bacteria have been developed in the past and are still used successfully today, e.g., vaccines against tetanus, pertussis, and diphtheria. However, while induction of antibody production is usually sufficient for protection against extracellular bacteria, vaccination against intracellular bacteria is much more difficult because effective defense against these pathogens requires T cell-mediated responses, particularly the activation of cytotoxic CD8+ T cells. These responses are usually not efficiently elicited by immunization with non-living whole cell antigens or subunit vaccines, so that other antigen delivery strategies are required. This review provides an overview of existing antibacterial vaccines and novel approaches to vaccination with a focus on immunization against intracellular bacteria.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines10050751","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,10]],"date-time":"2022-05-10T23:39:36Z","timestamp":1652225976000},"page":"751","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":58,"title":["Vaccination against Bacterial Infections: Challenges, Progress, and New Approaches with a Focus on Intracellular Bacteria"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Anke","family":"Osterloh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infection Immunology, Research Center Borstel, Parkallee 22, 23845 Borstel, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.cellbio.14.1.137","article-title":"Intracellular pathogens and the actin cytoskeleton","volume":"14","author":"Dramsi","year":"1998","journal-title":"Annu. 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