{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]],"date-time":"2026-06-24T06:38:45Z","timestamp":1782283125519,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":115,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,23]],"date-time":"2022-07-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1658534400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Deanship of Scientific Research at Majmaah University","award":["R-2022-219"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R-2022-219"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Mucosal surfaces are the first contact sites of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Most SARS-CoV-2 vaccines induce specific IgG responses but provide limited mucosal immunity. Cytokine B-cell activation factor (BAFF) and A proliferation-inducing ligand (APRIL) in the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily play key immunological functions during B cell development and antibody production. Furthermore, homeostatic chemokines, such as C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 13 (CXCL13), chemokine (C\u2013C motif) ligand 19 (CCL19), and CCL21, can induce B- and T-cell responses to infection and promote the formation of inducible bronchus-associated lymphoid tissues (iBALT), where specific local immune responses and memory cells are generated. We reviewed the role of BAFF, APRIL, CXCL13, CCL19, and CCL21 in the activation of local B-cell responses and antibody production, and the formation of iBALT in the lung following viral respiratory infections. We speculate that mucosal vaccines may offer more efficient protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection than systematic vaccines and hypothesize that a novel SARS-CoV-2 mRNA mucosal vaccine using BAFF\/APRIL or CXCL13 as immunostimulants combined with the spike protein-encoding mRNA may enhance the efficiency of the local immune response and prevent the early stages of SARS-CoV-2 replication and the rapid viral clearance from the airways.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines10081173","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]],"date-time":"2022-07-25T04:52:47Z","timestamp":1658724767000},"page":"1173","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["Considerations for Novel COVID-19 Mucosal Vaccine Development"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6947-7582","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wael","family":"Alturaiki","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Majmaah University, Majmaah 11952, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6871","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-27063-4","article-title":"Protective mucosal immunity against SARS-CoV-2 after heterologous systemic prime-mucosal boost immunization","volume":"12","author":"Lapuente","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. 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