{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T19:34:17Z","timestamp":1791920057360,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":115,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,7]],"date-time":"2022-12-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1670371200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The monkeypox disease is a zoonotic-infectious disease that transmits between animals and humans. It is caused by a double-stranded DNA virus belonging to the Orthopoxvirus genus that is closely related to the variola virus \u2013the causative agent of smallpox. Although monkeypox infections were endemic to Western and Central Africa, the newly emerging monkeypox outbreak spread to more than 90 non-African countries. With the exception of the PCR-confirmed case of a return from Nigeria to the United Kingdom, the ongoing outbreak is largely unrelated to travel. In the most recent wave, cases are characteristically males in their thirties. Risk factors include close and particularly sexual contact with an infected person, and contact with fomites, infected animals or aerosolized-infectious material. Clinical diagnosis of monkeypox is confirmed with nucleic-acid amplification testing of samples originating from vesicles or genital lesions and using real-time or conventional PCR. Other methods, such as electron microscopy, immunohistochemistry, and virus culture are costly and time-consuming. In addition to timely diagnosis and contact tracing, restrictive measures to limit spread, such as isolation of infected patients, preventing contact with wild animals, and isolation of animals suspected to be viral reservoirs have shown promise. Although there are no specific treatments for monkeypox disease, the experience with smallpox suggests that the vaccinia vaccine, cidofovir, tecovirimat, and vaccinia immune globulin (IVG) may be beneficial for monkeypox treatment. In this review, we provide an update on the human-monkeypox disease with a special emphasis on its pathogenesis, prevention, diagnostics, and therapeutic measures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines10122091","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,8]],"date-time":"2022-12-08T02:17:57Z","timestamp":1670465877000},"page":"2091","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":69,"title":["Disease History, Pathogenesis, Diagnostics, and Therapeutics for Human Monkeypox Disease: A Comprehensive Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8616-5874","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"AbdulRahman A.","family":"Saied","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Food Safety Authority (NFSA), Aswan Branch, Aswan 81511, Egypt"},{"name":"Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, Aswan-office, Aswan 81511, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7783-7138","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manish","family":"Dhawan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141004, India"},{"name":"The Trafford Group of Colleges, Manchester WA14 5PQ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8565-8220","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Asmaa A.","family":"Metwally","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery, Anesthesiology, and Radiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Aswan University, Aswan 81528, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9042-4290","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mathumalar Loganathan","family":"Fahrni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Pharmacy, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Puncak Alam Campus, Selangor Branch, Puncak Alam 42300, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4039-0157","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Priyanka","family":"Choudhary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Microbiology, College of Veterinary Science, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (GADVASU), Rampura Phul 151103, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6929-675X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Om Prakash","family":"Choudhary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Anatomy and Histology, College of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Central Agricultural University, Selesih, Aizawl 796014, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alakunle, E., Moens, U., Nchinda, G., and Okeke, M.I. 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