{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,9]],"date-time":"2026-01-09T01:23:35Z","timestamp":1767921815873,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":97,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,31]],"date-time":"2022-12-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1672444800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"national funds through the FCT\/MEC (PIDDAC)","award":["UIDB\/50011\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/50011\/2020"]}]},{"name":"national funds through the FCT\/MEC (PIDDAC)","award":["UIDP\/50011\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/50011\/2020"]}]},{"name":"national funds through the FCT\/MEC (PIDDAC)","award":["LA\/P\/0006\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0006\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Giardia intestinalis (Giardia lambia, Giardia duodenalis) infections in humans may be asymptomatic or symptomatic and associated with diarrhea (without blood), abdominal cramps, bloating, flatulence, and weight loss. The protozoan Giardia is the third most common cause of diarrhea and death in children under five, preceded only by rotavirus and by Cryptosporidium parvum and C. hominis infections. Antimicrobial drugs, particularly 5-nitroimidazole (5-NIs), are used to treat giardiasis in humans. Immunologically naive or immunocompromised host are more vulnerable to Giardia infection, whereas a degree of resistance to this protozoan is present in humans living in endemic areas. This suggests that vaccination may be a potential and appropriate means to control this parasitic disease outbreak and protect the human population. This review discusses Giardia antigens related to vaccine development. Additionally, based on the latest development of nanoparticle technology, a combination of methods for future research and development is proposed for the design of the next generation of powerful immunogens and an effective vaccine against Giardia.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines11010096","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,2]],"date-time":"2023-01-02T04:51:22Z","timestamp":1672635082000},"page":"96","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Conserved Candidate Antigens and Nanoparticles to Develop Vaccine against Giardia intestinalis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Suthinee","family":"Sangkanu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Allied Health Sciences, Southeast Asia Water Team (SEA Water Team) and World Union for Herbal Drug Discovery (WUHeDD), Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6090-2407","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alok K.","family":"Paul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Julalak","family":"Chuprom","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Languages and General Education (SOLGEN), Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Watcharapong","family":"Mitsuwan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Akkhraratchakumari Veterinary College, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rachasak","family":"Boonhok","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Technology, School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Research Excellence Center for Innovation and Health Products (RECIHP), Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6703-7869","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"de Lourdes Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Medical Sciences, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0707-5203","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sonia Marlene Rodrigues","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"},{"name":"Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton, NSW 2305, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2730-7788","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Polrat","family":"Wilairatana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0216-7977","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammed","family":"Rahmatullah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering, University of Development Alternative, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christophe","family":"Wiart","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Institute for Tropical Biology and Conservation, University Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, Kota Kinabalu 88400, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9016-9229","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad","family":"Nawaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nano-Medicine Research, Institute for Research and Medical Consultations (IRMC), Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8197-897X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chea","family":"Sin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Puthisastra, Phnom Penh 12211, Cambodia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5626-5783","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sunil","family":"Kayesth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Zoology, Deshbandhu College, University of Delhi, New Delhi 110019, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Veeranoot","family":"Nissapatorn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Allied Health Sciences, Southeast Asia Water Team (SEA Water Team) and World Union for Herbal Drug Discovery (WUHeDD), Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Messa, A., K\u00f6ster, P.C., Garrine, M., Gilchrist, C., Bartelt, L.A., Nhampossa, T., Massora, S., Kotloff, K., Levine, M.M., and Alonso, P.L. 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