{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T14:30:49Z","timestamp":1790951449363,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,31]],"date-time":"2023-05-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1685491200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100011680","name":"Research Center at King Fahad Medical City","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["IRF 021-003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IRF 021-003"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100011680","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The annual seasonal influenza vaccination is the most effective way of preventing influenza illness and hospitalization. However, the effectiveness of influenza vaccines has always been controversial. Therefore, we investigated the ability of the quadrivalent influenza vaccine to induce effective protection. Here we report strain-specific influenza vaccine effectiveness (VE) against laboratory-confirmed influenza cases during the 2019\/2020 season, characterized by the co-circulation of four different influenza strains. During 2019\u20132020, 778 influenza-like illness (ILI) samples were collected from 302 (39%) vaccinated ILI patients and 476 (61%) unvaccinated ILI patients in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. VE was found to be 28% and 22% for influenza A and B, respectively. VE for preventing A(H3N2) and A(H1N1)pdm09 illness was 37.4% (95% CI: 43.7\u201354.3) and 39.2% (95% CI: 21.1\u201328.9), respectively. The VE for preventing influenza B Victoria lineage illness was 71.7% (95% CI: \u22120.9\u20133), while the VE for the Yamagata lineage could not be estimated due to the limited number of positive cases. The overall vaccine effectiveness was moderately low at 39.7%. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that most of the Flu A genotypes in our dataset clustered together, indicating their close genetic relatedness. In the post-COVID-19 pandemic, flu B-positive cases have reached three-quarters of the total number of influenza-positive cases, indicating a nationwide flu B surge. The reasons for this phenomenon, if related to the quadrivalent flu VE, need to be explored. Annual monitoring and genetic characterization of circulating influenza viruses are important to support Influenza surveillance systems and to improve influenza vaccine effectiveness.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines11061050","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,1]],"date-time":"2023-06-01T01:40:56Z","timestamp":1685583656000},"page":"1050","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Moderately Low Effectiveness of the Influenza Quadrivalent Vaccine: Potential Mismatch between Circulating Strains and Vaccine Strains"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Maaweya E.","family":"Awadalla","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center, King Fahad Medical City, Riyadh Second Health Cluster, Riyadh 11525, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8071-9837","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haitham","family":"Alkadi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center, King Fahad Medical City, Riyadh Second Health Cluster, Riyadh 11525, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Modhi","family":"Alarjani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center, King Fahad Medical City, Riyadh Second Health Cluster, Riyadh 11525, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5901-8278","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdullah E.","family":"Al-Anazi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Comprehensive Cancer Center, King Fahad Medical City, Riyadh Second Health Cluster, Riyadh 11525, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8282-6169","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohanad A.","family":"Ibrahim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Data Science Program, King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, Riyadh 11481, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thamer Ahmad","family":"ALOhali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Protocol Department, Kind Abdulaziz Medical City, Ministry of National Guard Health Affairs, Riyadh 11426, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mushira","family":"Enani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dr Sulaiman Alhabib Medical Group, Department of Medicine, Olaya Medical Complex, Riyadh 11643, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6947-7582","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wael","family":"Alturaiki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Majmaah University, Majmaah 11952, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4719-2655","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bandar","family":"Alosaimi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center, King Fahad Medical City, Riyadh Second Health Cluster, Riyadh 11525, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(22)00982-5","article-title":"Influenza","volume":"400","author":"Uyeki","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S82","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1141","article-title":"Influenza: Old and new threats","volume":"10","author":"Palese","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. 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