{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T13:51:38Z","timestamp":1783605098662,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":275,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,24]],"date-time":"2023-10-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1698105600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006701","name":"the Deanship of Scientific Research at Umm Al-Qura University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["22UQU4331312DSR01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["22UQU4331312DSR01"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006701","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006701","name":"the Deanship of Scientific Research at Umm Al-Qura University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01AI145332"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01AI145332"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006701","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006701","name":"the Deanship of Scientific Research at Umm Al-Qura University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01AI141607"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01AI141607"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006701","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006701","name":"the Deanship of Scientific Research at Umm Al-Qura University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["75N93021C00014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["75N93021C00014"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006701","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"National Institute of Health (NIH)","award":["22UQU4331312DSR01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["22UQU4331312DSR01"]}]},{"name":"National Institute of Health (NIH)","award":["R01AI145332"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01AI145332"]}]},{"name":"National Institute of Health (NIH)","award":["R01AI141607"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01AI141607"]}]},{"name":"National Institute of Health (NIH)","award":["75N93021C00014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["75N93021C00014"]}]},{"name":"American Lung Association","award":["22UQU4331312DSR01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["22UQU4331312DSR01"]}]},{"name":"American Lung Association","award":["R01AI145332"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01AI145332"]}]},{"name":"American Lung Association","award":["R01AI141607"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01AI141607"]}]},{"name":"American Lung Association","award":["75N93021C00014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["75N93021C00014"]}]},{"name":"Center for Research on Influenza Pathogenesis and Transmission (CRIPT)","award":["22UQU4331312DSR01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["22UQU4331312DSR01"]}]},{"name":"Center for Research on Influenza Pathogenesis and Transmission (CRIPT)","award":["R01AI145332"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01AI145332"]}]},{"name":"Center for Research on Influenza Pathogenesis and Transmission (CRIPT)","award":["R01AI141607"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01AI141607"]}]},{"name":"Center for Research on Influenza Pathogenesis and Transmission (CRIPT)","award":["75N93021C00014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["75N93021C00014"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Despite the panzootic nature of emergent highly pathogenic avian influenza H5Nx viruses in wild migratory birds and domestic poultry, only a limited number of human infections with H5Nx viruses have been identified since its emergence in 1996. Few countries with endemic avian influenza viruses (AIVs) have implemented vaccination as a control strategy, while most of the countries have adopted a culling strategy for the infected flocks. To date, China and Egypt are the two major sites where vaccination has been adopted to control avian influenza H5Nx infections, especially with the widespread circulation of clade 2.3.4.4b H5N1 viruses. This virus is currently circulating among birds and poultry, with occasional spillovers to mammals, including humans. Herein, we will discuss the history of AIVs in Egypt as one of the hotspots for infections and the improper implementation of prophylactic and therapeutic control strategies, leading to continuous flock outbreaks with remarkable virus evolution scenarios. Along with current pre-pandemic preparedness efforts, comprehensive surveillance of H5Nx viruses in wild birds, domestic poultry, and mammals, including humans, in endemic areas is critical to explore the public health risk of the newly emerging immune-evasive or drug-resistant H5Nx variants.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines11111628","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,24]],"date-time":"2023-10-24T06:28:25Z","timestamp":1698128905000},"page":"1628","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Vaccination and Antiviral Treatment against Avian Influenza H5Nx Viruses: A Harbinger of Virus Control or Evolution"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0095-4563","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahlam","family":"Alasiri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Basic Sciences, Adham University College, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 21955, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3211-4630","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raya","family":"Soltane","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Basic Sciences, Adham University College, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 21955, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2489-9036","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Akram","family":"Hegazy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agricultural Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza District, Giza 12613, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ahmed Magdy","family":"Khalil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX 78227, USA"},{"name":"Department of Zoonotic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sara H.","family":"Mahmoud","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center of Scientific Excellence for Influenza Viruses, National Research Center, Giza 12622, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2920-1178","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed A.","family":"Khalil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Sera and Vaccines Research Institute (VSVRI), Agriculture Research Center (ARC), Cairo 11435, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7084-0804","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luis","family":"Martinez-Sobrido","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX 78227, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2878-5714","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed","family":"Mostafa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX 78227, USA"},{"name":"Center of Scientific Excellence for Influenza Viruses, National Research Center, Giza 12622, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mostafa, A., Abdelwhab, E.M., Mettenleiter, T.C., and Pleschka, S. 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