{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]],"date-time":"2026-10-27T07:18:22Z","timestamp":1793085502721,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":218,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,9]],"date-time":"2023-11-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1699488000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Deputyship for Research Innovation, Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia","award":["ISP23-82"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ISP23-82"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Vaccination is a groundbreaking approach in preventing and controlling infectious diseases. However, the effectiveness of vaccines can be greatly enhanced by the inclusion of adjuvants, which are substances that potentiate and modulate the immune response. This review is based on extensive searches in reputable databases such as Web of Science, PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus, and Google Scholar. The goal of this review is to provide a thorough analysis of the advances in the field of adjuvant research, to trace the evolution, and to understand the effects of the various adjuvants. Historically, alum was the pioneer in the field of adjuvants because it was the first to be approved for use in humans. It served as the foundation for subsequent research and innovation in the field. As science progressed, research shifted to identifying and exploiting the potential of newer adjuvants. One important area of interest is nano formulations. These advanced adjuvants have special properties that can be tailored to enhance the immune response to vaccines. The transition from traditional alum-based adjuvants to nano formulations is indicative of the dynamism and potential of vaccine research. Innovations in adjuvant research, particularly the development of nano formulations, are a promising step toward improving vaccine efficacy and safety. These advances have the potential to redefine the boundaries of vaccination and potentially expand the range of diseases that can be addressed with this approach. There is an optimistic view of the future in which improved vaccine formulations will contribute significantly to improving global health outcomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines11111704","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,9]],"date-time":"2023-11-09T10:19:27Z","timestamp":1699525167000},"page":"1704","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":69,"title":["Advancements in Vaccine Adjuvants: The Journey from Alum to Nano Formulations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4860-0166","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sivakumar","family":"Moni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6145-4466","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Siddig","family":"Abdelwahab","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Research Centre, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aamena","family":"Jabeen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohamed","family":"Elmobark","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Duaa","family":"Aqaili","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physiology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4956-8222","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gassem","family":"Gohal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9207-9411","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bassem","family":"Oraibi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Research Centre, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdulla","family":"Farasani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Applied Medical Sciences, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ahmed","family":"Jerah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Applied Medical Sciences, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-5720-2740","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mahdi","family":"Alnajai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"General Directorate of Health Services and University Hospital, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdul","family":"Mohammad Alowayni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1080\/08998280.2005.11928028","article-title":"Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination","volume":"Volume 18","author":"Stephan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-00479-7","article-title":"A guide to vaccinology: From basic principles to new developments","volume":"21","author":"Pollard","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. 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