{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T19:49:33Z","timestamp":1791229773362,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":86,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,25]],"date-time":"2024-06-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1719273600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection remains a significant global health concern worldwide, contributing to high rates of mortality and morbidity, including chronic hepatitis B, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Universal vaccination programs have significantly reduced the rate of HBV transmission; however, a subset of individuals fail to develop a protective immune response following vaccination and are termed nonresponders. A comprehensive search strategy using the PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science databases was employed to search for relevant studies using keywords including \u201chepatitis B vaccine\u201d, \u201cvaccine nonresponse\u201d, \u201cimmunogenicity\u201d, \u201cimmune response to the hepatitis B vaccine\u201d, and \u201cassociated risk factors\u201d. Factors influencing the vaccine\u2019s response include demographic factors, such as age and sex, with increased nonresponse rates being observed in older adults and males. Obesity, smoking, and alcohol consumption are lifestyle factors that decrease the vaccine response. Medical conditions, including diabetes, chronic kidney and liver diseases, HIV, celiac disease, and inflammatory bowel disease, affect the vaccine response. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) haplotypes and genetic polymorphisms linked to immune regulation are genetic factors that further influence the vaccine\u2019s effectiveness. To reduce the global burden of hepatitis B infection, it is essential to understand these factors to improve vaccine effectiveness and develop individualized vaccination strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines12070710","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,27]],"date-time":"2024-06-27T05:11:39Z","timestamp":1719465099000},"page":"710","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":29,"title":["A Comprehensive Review of Hepatitis B Vaccine Nonresponse and Associated Risk Factors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9272-5540","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Albashir","family":"Tahir","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Basic Clinical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto 840001, Nigeria"},{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, Bauchi State University, Gadau 751105, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sa\u2019adatu Haruna","family":"Shinkafi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Teaching Hospital, Sokoto 23270, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3666-3848","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed Subeh","family":"Alshrari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Laboratory Technology Department, Faculty of Applied Medical Science, Northern Border University, Arar 91431, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdulmajeed","family":"Yunusa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Basic Clinical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto 840001, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muhammad Tukur","family":"Umar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Basic Clinical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto 840001, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5765-4580","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shuaibu Abdullahi","family":"Hudu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Basic Medical and Dental Sciences, Faculty of Dentistry, Zarqa University, Zarqa 13110, Jordan"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Basic Clinical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto 840232, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7322-9100","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdulgafar Olayiwola","family":"Jimoh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Basic Clinical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto 840001, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2024, May 13). 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