{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T21:16:23Z","timestamp":1792790183442,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,3]],"date-time":"2024-11-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1730592000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Italian Ministry of University and Research","award":["20177MKB4H"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20177MKB4H"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Many human activities release harmful substances, contaminating the air, water, and soil. Since exposure to environmental pollutants is currently unavoidable, it is important to verify how these compounds may influence individual immune responses to vaccines. Methods: This review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA statement. The protocol was registered on the PROSPERO platform with the following ID: CRD42024582592. We evaluated all observational, semi-experimental, and experimental studies written in both Italian and English that reported possible effects of exposure to environmental pollutants on the production of vaccine-induced antibodies. Results: Forty-two studies were included. The effects of pollutants were examined mainly in terms of antibody production in relation to mumps, measles and rubella, diphtheria and tetanus, hepatitis A and B, Haemophilus influenzae type B, influenza, tuberculosis, pertussis, Japanese encephalitis, poliomyelitis, and COVID-19 vaccines. Perfluorinated compounds were the most studied pollutants. Conclusions: Correlations between exposure to pollutants and reductions in antibody production were found in quite all the selected studies, suggesting that pollution control policies could contribute to increase the efficacy of vaccination campaigns. However, the heterogeneity of the examined studies did not allow us to perform a meta-analysis, and the literature on each type of vaccine or pollutant is still too limited to generate robust evidence. In order to confirm the findings of the present systematic review, and in the perspective of establishing possible exposure limit values for each type of pollutant, further research in this field is required.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines12111252","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,4]],"date-time":"2024-11-04T03:57:34Z","timestamp":1730692654000},"page":"1252","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Exposure to Pollutants and Vaccines\u2019 Effectiveness: A Systematic Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7668-5809","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carmela","family":"Protano","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9478-6299","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Federica","family":"Valeriani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome Foro Italico, 00135 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katia","family":"Vitale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-0656-7945","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jole","family":"Del Prete","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fabrizio","family":"Liguori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Economics and Legal Studies, University of Naples \u201cParthenope\u201d, Via Generale Parisi 13, 80132 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giorgio","family":"Liguori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical, Movement and Wellbeing Sciences, University of Naples \u201cParthenope\u201d, 80133 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0504-9562","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesca","family":"Gall\u00e8","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical, Movement and Wellbeing Sciences, University of Naples \u201cParthenope\u201d, 80133 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pcl.2024.01.018","article-title":"Vaccine Development","volume":"71","author":"Hammershaimb","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pediatr. 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