{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T18:35:39Z","timestamp":1792175739205,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":351,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,27]],"date-time":"2025-01-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737936000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Center of Biomedical Research Excellence (COBRE)","award":["NIH P20 GM130456"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIH P20 GM130456"]}]},{"name":"Center of Biomedical Research Excellence (COBRE)","award":["KL2TR001996"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KL2TR001996"]}]},{"name":"National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health","award":["NIH P20 GM130456"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIH P20 GM130456"]}]},{"name":"National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health","award":["KL2TR001996"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KL2TR001996"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Infectious diseases continue to pose a significant global health threat. To combat these challenges, innovative vaccine technologies are urgently needed. Nanoparticles (NPs) have unique properties and have emerged as a promising platform for developing next-generation vaccines. Nanoparticles are revolutionizing the field of vaccine development, offering a new era of immunization. They allow the creation of more effective, stable, and easily deliverable vaccines. Various types of NPs, including lipid, polymeric, metal, and virus-like particles, can be employed to encapsulate and deliver vaccine components, such as mRNA or protein antigens. These NPs protect antigens from degradation, target them to specific immune cells, and enhance antigen presentation, leading to robust and durable immune responses. Additionally, NPs can simultaneously deliver multiple vaccine components, including antigens, and adjuvants, in a single formulation, simplifying vaccine production and administration. Nanovaccines offer a promising approach to combat food- and water-borne bacterial diseases, surpassing traditional formulations. Further research is needed to address the global burden of these infections. This review highlights the potential of NPs to revolutionize vaccine platforms. We explore their mechanisms of action, current applications, and emerging trends. The review discusses the limitations of nanovaccines, innovative solutions and the potential role of artificial intelligence in developing more effective and accessible nanovaccines to combat infectious diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines13020126","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,27]],"date-time":"2025-01-27T03:54:27Z","timestamp":1737950067000},"page":"126","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":43,"title":["Revolutionizing Nanovaccines: A New Era of Immunization"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Mohammed","family":"Saleh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Science, Martin-Gatton College of Agriculture, Food, and Environment, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ahmed","family":"El-Moghazy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7481-1602","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adel H.","family":"Elgohary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hygiene and Zoonoses, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0631-4089","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"WesamEldin I. A.","family":"Saber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microbial Activity Unit, Department of Microbiology, Soils, Water and Environment Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Giza 12619, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1470-5418","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yosra A.","family":"Helmy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Science, Martin-Gatton College of Agriculture, Food, and Environment, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hedman, H.D., Krawczyk, E., Helmy, Y.A., Zhang, L., and Varga, C. (2021). Host Diversity and Potential Transmission Pathways of SARS-CoV-2 at the Human-Animal Interface. 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