{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T00:57:05Z","timestamp":1760057825698,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,22]],"date-time":"2025-02-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1740182400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000060","name":"Sea Grape Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["5R01AI148710"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["5R01AI148710"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000060","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: The majority of antigen-based SARS-CoV-2 (SCV2) vaccines utilized in the clinic have had the Spike protein or domains thereof as the immunogen. While the Spike protein is highly immunogenic, it is also subject to genetic drift over time, which has led to a series of variants of concern that continue to evolve, requiring yearly updates to the vaccine formulations. In this study, we investigate the potential of the N-terminal ectodomain of the ORF3a protein encoded by the orf3a gene of SCV2 to be an evolution-resistant vaccine antigen. This domain is highly conserved over time, and, unlike many other SCV2 conserved proteins, it is present on the exterior of the virion, making it accessible to antibodies. ORF3a is also important for eliciting robust anti-SARS-CoV-2 T-cell responses. Methods: We designed a DNA vaccine by fusing the N-terminal ectodomain of orf3a to macrophage-inflammatory protein 3\u03b1 (MIP3\u03b1), which is a chemokine utilized in our laboratory that enhances vaccine immunogenicity by targeting an antigen to its receptor CCR6 present on immature dendritic cells. The DNA vaccine was tested in mouse immunogenicity studies, vaccinating by intramuscular (IM) electroporation and by intranasal (IN) with CpG adjuvant administrations. We also tested a peptide vaccine fusing amino acids 15\u201328 of the ectodomain to immunogenic carrier protein KLH, adjuvanted with Addavax. Results: The DNA IM route was able to induce 3a-specific splenic T-cell responses, showing proof of principle that the region can be immunogenic. The DNA IN route further showed that we could induce ORF3a-specific T-cell responses in the lung, which are critical for potential disease mitigation. The peptide vaccine elicited a robust anti-ORF3a antibody response systemically, as well as in the mucosa of the lungs and sinus cavity. Conclusions: These studies collectively show that this evolutionarily stable region can be targeted by vaccination strategies, and future work will test if these vaccines, alone or in combination, can result in reduced disease burden in animal challenge models.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines13030220","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,24]],"date-time":"2025-02-24T06:47:17Z","timestamp":1740379637000},"page":"220","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Novel Vaccines Targeting the Highly Conserved SARS-CoV-2 ORF3a Ectodomain Elicit Immunogenicity in Mouse Models"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-2042-9069","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jacob","family":"Meza","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Elizabeth","family":"Glass","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4501-1478","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Avinaash K.","family":"Sandhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yangchen","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2387-6075","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Styliani","family":"Karanika","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kaitlyn","family":"Fessler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yinan","family":"Hui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Courtney","family":"Schill","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tianyin","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jiaqi","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rowan E.","family":"Bates","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alannah D.","family":"Taylor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7386-2678","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aakanksha R.","family":"Kapoor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Samuel K.","family":"Ayeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1338-9206","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Petros C.","family":"Karakousis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"},{"name":"Center for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3527-9147","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Richard B.","family":"Markham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2588-0756","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James T.","family":"Gordy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2024, August 02). 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