{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T00:54:26Z","timestamp":1760057666502,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,24]],"date-time":"2025-02-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1740355200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"intramural Uniformed Services University Military Research Royalty Funds Award"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Invasive Streptococcus pneumoniae disease (IPD) and invasive Haemophilus influenzae (IHI) infections cause disease in pediatric patients. The COVID-19 pandemic brought about a change in the rates of common viral illnesses that can lead to superimposed bacterial infections. Methods: A repeated monthly cross-sectional study was performed using inpatient data from the Military Health System Data Repository (MDR) to observe differences in IPD and IHI hospitalization rates before and during the COVID-19 pandemic starting in March 2018 and continuing to February 2023. Our study included a cohort of 1.27 million children under the age of 5 years old. Results: A total of 200 unique cases of IPD and 171 unique cases of IHI were identified. In Year 1 of the pandemic, the hospitalization rates for IHI and IPD decreased. In Year 2, IPD returned to the pre-pandemic baseline, and IHI remained below the baseline. In Year 3, IPD increased above the baseline, and IHI returned to the baseline. Conclusions: These data support the notion that the interventions implemented to reduce the spread of COVID-19, such as hand hygiene and social distancing, likely led to a reduction in the incidence of invasive disease. The subsequent relaxation of these mitigation strategies likely led to a resurgence of IHI and an increase in IPD in our population.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines13030225","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,24]],"date-time":"2025-02-24T06:47:17Z","timestamp":1740379637000},"page":"225","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Incidence Rates for Invasive Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae Infections in US Military Pediatric Dependents Before and During COVID-19"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7883-4748","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matthew D.","family":"Penfold","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sarah","family":"Prabhakar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA"},{"name":"The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, MD 20817, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Rajnik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2580-2563","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Apryl","family":"Susi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA"},{"name":"The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, MD 20817, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Monisha F.","family":"Malek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Brooke Army Medical Center, Joint Base San Antonio, Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, TX 78234, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4543-6804","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cade M.","family":"Nylund","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3423-6121","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elizabeth","family":"Hisle-Gorman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Matthew D.","family":"Eberly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Brooke Army Medical Center, Joint Base San Antonio, Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, TX 78234, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Barth, S. 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