{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T00:58:00Z","timestamp":1760057880688,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]],"date-time":"2025-02-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1740700800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development (AMED)","award":["JP21nf0101638","23H00503"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP21nf0101638","23H00503"]}]},{"name":"Moderna Inc.","award":["JP21nf0101638","23H00503"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP21nf0101638","23H00503"]}]},{"name":"JSPS KAKENHI","award":["JP21nf0101638","23H00503"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP21nf0101638","23H00503"]}]},{"name":"Medical and Biological Laboratories Co., Ltd.","award":["JP21nf0101638","23H00503"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP21nf0101638","23H00503"]}]},{"name":"Shenzhen YHLO Biotech Co., Ltd.","award":["JP21nf0101638","23H00503"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP21nf0101638","23H00503"]}]},{"name":"Kowa Co.","award":["JP21nf0101638","23H00503"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP21nf0101638","23H00503"]}]},{"name":"Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology in the University of Tokyo","award":["JP21nf0101638","23H00503"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP21nf0101638","23H00503"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Limited research has compared tests assessing humoral and cellular immunity related to SARS-CoV-2 infection. This study evaluated immunoglobulin G for nucleocapsid (IgG(N)) and T-spot for nucleocapsid (T-spot(N)) assays against polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test results for identifying infected individuals. Methods: This study included participants who had completed five blood samplings since their second COVID-19 vaccination between 9 September 2021 and 6 November 2022. Chemiluminescent immunoassay (CLIA) tests measured the humoral immune response, IgG(S) and neutralizing activity tests the immune status, and IgG(N) tests the infection history. For cellar immunity, T-spot(S) indicated immune status, and T-spot(N) indicated infection history. Results: The primary outcome was the proportion of individuals who tested positive for PCR and the proportion who tested positive for IgG(N) and T-spot(N). Overall, this study included 2104 participants. In the PCR-negative group, 1838 individuals tested negative for IgG(N), whereas 64 tested positive at least once. The geometric mean of IgG(S) at T5 was 1541.7 AU\/mL in the IgG(N)-negative group and 3965.8 AU\/mL in the IgG(N)-positive group, which was 2.6 times higher. In the PCR-positive group, 25 individuals tested negative for IgG(N), while 177 tested positive at least once. The geometric mean of IgG(S) at T5 was 2700.6 AU\/mL in the IgG(N)-negative group and 5400.8 AU\/mL in the IgG(N)-positive group, showing higher values in the IgG(N)-positive group. Conclusions: A discrepancy was noted between PCR test results and the IgG(N) and T-spot(N) determinations. Combining multiple assays is required to accurately identify the past-infected population.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines13030259","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]],"date-time":"2025-02-28T10:12:33Z","timestamp":1740737553000},"page":"259","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Discrepancy in SARS-CoV-2 Infection Status Among PCR, Serological, and Cellular Immunity Assays of Nucleocapsids: A Historical Cohort Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Taiga","family":"Uchiyama","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Health Management, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima City 960-1295, Fukushima, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3442-3779","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yurie","family":"Kobashi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Health Management, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima City 960-1295, Fukushima, Japan"},{"name":"Global Exchange Center, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima City 960-1247, Fukushima, Japan"},{"name":"Department of General Internal Medicine, Hirata Central Hospital, Hirata 963-8202, Fukushima, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Takeshi","family":"Kawamura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Proteomics Laboratory, Isotope Science Center, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan"},{"name":"Laboratory for Systems Biology and Medicine, Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yoshitaka","family":"Nishikawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of General Internal Medicine, Hirata Central Hospital, Hirata 963-8202, Fukushima, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Aya","family":"Nakayama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Proteomics Laboratory, Isotope Science Center, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fumiya","family":"Oguro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of General Internal Medicine, Hirata Central Hospital, Hirata 963-8202, Fukushima, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yudai","family":"Kaneko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory for Systems Biology and Medicine, Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan"},{"name":"Medical & Biological Laboratories Co., Ltd., Tokyo 105-0012, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chika","family":"Yamamoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Health Management, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima City 960-1295, Fukushima, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0599-0328","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Naomi","family":"Ito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Health Management, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima City 960-1295, Fukushima, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8602-6786","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tianchen","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Health Management, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima City 960-1295, Fukushima, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0824-454X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hiroaki","family":"Saito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Health Management, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima City 960-1295, Fukushima, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-2496-8456","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Toshiki","family":"Abe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Health Management, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima City 960-1295, Fukushima, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tatsuhiko","family":"Kodama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory for Systems Biology and Medicine, Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8027-202X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Masaharu","family":"Tsubokura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Health Management, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima City 960-1295, Fukushima, Japan"},{"name":"Department of General Internal Medicine, Hirata Central Hospital, Hirata 963-8202, Fukushima, Japan"},{"name":"General Incorporated Association for Comprehensive Disaster Health Management Research Institute, Tokyo 108-0074, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, L., Ayeh, S.K., Chidambaram, V., and Karakousis, P.C. (2021). Modes of transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and evidence for preventive behavioral interventions. BMC Infect. Dis., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-021-06222-4"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1007\/s44197-021-00030-4","article-title":"Rapid antigen test combine with nucleic acid detection: A better strategy for COVID-19 screening at points of entry","volume":"12","author":"Zhan","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Epidemiol. Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104985","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2021.104985","article-title":"Comparing the diagnostic accuracy of rapid antigen detection tests to real time polymerase chain reaction in the diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"144","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Y\u00fcce, M., Filiztekin, E., and \u00d6zkaya, K.G. (2021). COVID-19 diagnosis\u2014A review of current methods. Biosens. Bioelectron., 172.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2020.112752"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.7326\/M20-3012","article-title":"Prevalence of Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infection","volume":"173","author":"Oran","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e116","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268820001235","article-title":"COVID-19: Asymptomatic carrier transmission is an underestimated problem","volume":"148","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.1097\/HP.0000000000000093","article-title":"The Accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in 2011","volume":"106","author":"Tominaga","year":"2014","journal-title":"Health Phys."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1111\/phn.12140","article-title":"Experiences of Municipal Public Health Nurses Following Japan\u2019s Earthquake, Tsunami, and Nuclear Disaster","volume":"31","author":"Kayama","year":"2014","journal-title":"Public Health Nurs."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04020059","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)NH.1527-6996.0000423","article-title":"Institutional Coordination of Disaster Management: Engaging National and Local Governments in Japan","volume":"22","author":"Ishiwatari","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Rev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1274","DOI":"10.1080\/10410236.2019.1625004","article-title":"Communication between Health Professionals and Community Residents in Fukushima: A Focus on the Feedback Loop","volume":"35","author":"Yumiya","year":"2019","journal-title":"Health Commun."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kobashi, Y., Kawamura, T., Shimazu, Y., Zhao, T., Sugiyama, A., Nakayama, A., Kaneko, Y., Nishikawa, Y., Omata, F., and Takita, M. (2022). Humoral immunity after second dose of BNT162b2 vaccine in Japanese communities: An observational cross-sectional study, Fukushima Vaccination Community Survey. Sci. Rep., 12.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-21797-x"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107884","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2021.107884","article-title":"Seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies among hospital staff in rural Central Fukushima, Japan: A historical cohort study","volume":"98","author":"Kobashi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101096","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nmni.2023.101096","article-title":"SARS-COV-2 IgG specific antibodies persistence in recovered COVID-19 individuals and its association with severity and time of illness","volume":"52","author":"Pagheh","year":"2023","journal-title":"New Microbes New Infect."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e058761","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2021-058761","article-title":"Cumulative incidence of SARS-CoV-2 and associated risk factors among healthcare workers: A cross-sectional study in the Eastern Cape, South Africa","volume":"12","author":"Stead","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.07.082","article-title":"Asymptomatic infection by SARS-CoV-2 in healthcare workers: A study in a large teaching hospital in Wuhan, China","volume":"99","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"66","article-title":"Longitudinal serology of SARS-CoV-2-Infected individuals in India: A prospective cohort study","volume":"105","author":"Thiruvengadam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-022-05636-y","article-title":"Incidence and risk factors of SARS-CoV-2 infection among workers in a public health laboratory in Tunisia","volume":"168","author":"Kharroubi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.2188\/jea.JE20210324","article-title":"Serologic survey of IgG against SARS-CoV-2 among hospital visitors without a history of SARS-CoV-2 infection in Tokyo, 2020\u20132021","volume":"32","author":"Sanada","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marklund, E., Leach, S., Nystr\u00f6m, K., Lundgren, A., Liljeqvist, J.\u00c5., Nilsson, S., Yilmaz, A., Andersson, L.M., Bemark, M., and Gissl\u00e9n, M. (2021). Longitudinal follow up of immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 in health care workers in Sweden with several different commercial IgG-assays, measurement of neutralizing antibodies and CD4+ T-cell Responses. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.750448"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01892-20","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01892-20","article-title":"Evaluation of three commercial SARS-CoV-2 serologic assays and their performance in two-test algorithms","volume":"59","author":"Turbett","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Algaissi, A., Alfaleh, M.A., Hala, S., Abujamel, T.S., Alamri, S.S., Almahboub, S.A., Alluhaybi, K.A., Hobani, H.I., Alsulaiman, R.M., and AlHarbi, R.H. (2020). SARS-CoV-2 S1 and N-based serological assays reveal rapid seroconversion and induction of specific antibody response in COVID-19 patients. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-73491-5"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"m2516","article-title":"Diagnostic accuracy of serological tests for Covid-19: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"370","author":"Tavaziva","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Igawa, G., Ai, T., Yamamoto, T., Ito, K., Nojiri, S., Saito, K., Wakita, M., Fukuda, H., Hori, S., and Misawa, S. (2022). Antibody response and seroprevalence in healthcare workers after the BNT162b2 vaccination in a University Hospital at Tokyo. Sci. Rep., 12.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-12809-x"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.03700321","article-title":"Early humoral responses of hemodialysis patients after COVID-19 vaccination with BNT162b2","volume":"16","author":"Speer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2435","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2021050611","article-title":"Antibody response to COVID-19 vaccination in patients receiving dialysis","volume":"32","author":"Anand","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."}],"container-title":["Vaccines"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-393X\/13\/3\/259\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:44:51Z","timestamp":1760028291000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-393X\/13\/3\/259"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]]},"references-count":25,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3]]}},"alternative-id":["vaccines13030259"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/vaccines13030259","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-393X"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2076-393X"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]]}}}