{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,16]],"date-time":"2026-05-16T12:20:21Z","timestamp":1778934021068,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":122,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,14]],"date-time":"2025-04-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1744588800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation","award":["2-SRA-2022-1214-S-B"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2-SRA-2022-1214-S-B"]}]},{"name":"Wanek Family Project to Cure Type 1 Diabetes (City of Hope)","award":["2-SRA-2022-1214-S-B"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2-SRA-2022-1214-S-B"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by the progressive destruction of insulin-producing \u03b2-cells in the pancreas. Currently, no therapy exists to halt or cure T1D. Vaccination with diabetic autoantigens may offer protection against T1D development. Genetically modified, attenuated Salmonella utilizing the Salmonella-Pathogenicity Island 2 (SPI2)-encoded Type Three Secretion System (T3SS) can elicit robust immune responses, making it an attractive vaccine platform. Using SPI2-T3SS to deliver an autoantigen alongside immunomodulators and anti-CD3 antibodies induces antigen-specific regulatory T-cells. Our preclinical studies demonstrated the efficacy of a Salmonella-based vaccine in both preventing and reversing autoimmune diabetes in non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice while also exploring its genetic modifications, underlying mechanisms, and delivery strategies. This review evaluates the advantages of an oral T1D vaccine employing live, attenuated Salmonella for autoantigen delivery. We also discuss future directions for advancing this strategy in the treatment of other autoimmune diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines13040405","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,14]],"date-time":"2025-04-14T06:18:36Z","timestamp":1744611516000},"page":"405","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Salmonella-Based Vaccine: A Promising Strategy for Type 1 Diabetes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4649-8572","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mahmoud","family":"Singer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fouad","family":"Kandeel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Research and Cellular Therapeutics, Artur Riggs Diabetes & Metabolism Research Institute, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3470-2858","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed I.","family":"Husseiny","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Research and Cellular Therapeutics, Artur Riggs Diabetes & Metabolism Research Institute, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101809","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmet.2023.101809","article-title":"The beta cell-immune cell interface in type 1 diabetes (T1D)","volume":"78","author":"James","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. 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