{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,13]],"date-time":"2026-08-13T17:08:09Z","timestamp":1786640889505,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":134,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,22]],"date-time":"2025-04-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745280000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002347","name":"German West African Center for Global Health and Pandemic Prevention (GWAC)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["81204851"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["81204851"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002347","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Helminth infections, particularly prevalent in low- and middle-income countries, have been extensively studied for their effects on human health. With the emergence of new infectious diseases like SARS-CoV-2 and Ebola, their impact on disease outcomes become more apparent. While individual studies have explored the impact of helminth co-infections on disease severity and vaccine efficacy, the findings are often inconsistent and context-dependent. Furthermore, the long-term effects of helminth-mediated immunosuppression on vaccine efficacy and its broader implications for co-infections in endemic regions remain not fully understood. Methods: This systematic review conducted in line with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) 2020 guidelines synthesizes the current evidence, identifies patterns, and highlights areas needing further research, offering a cohesive understanding of the topic. PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Cochrane Library were searched to include studies published from 2003 to February 2025. Results: Co-infection reveals a dual role of helminths in modulating immune responses, with both beneficial and detrimental interactions reported across studies. It may confer benefits against respiratory viral infections by muting hyper-inflammation associated with the severity of conditions like COVID-19, Influenza, and RSV. However, they can exacerbate disease outcomes in most bacteria and blood-borne viral conditions by impairing immune functions, such as neutrophil recruitment and antibody response, leading to more severe infections and higher viral loads. The stage of helminth infection also appears critical, with early-stage infections sometimes offering protection, while late-stage infections may worsen disease outcomes. Helminth infection can also negatively impact vaccine efficacy by suppressing B cell activity, reducing antibody levels, and decreasing vaccine effectiveness against infectious diseases. This immunosuppressive effect may persist after deworming, complicating efforts to restore vaccine efficacy. Maternal helminth infections also significantly influence neonatal immunity, affecting newborn vaccine responses. Conclusions: There is a need for targeted interventions and further research in helminth-endemic regions to mitigate the adverse effects on vaccine efficacy and improve public health outcomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines13050436","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,22]],"date-time":"2025-04-22T20:24:52Z","timestamp":1745353492000},"page":"436","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Helminth Coinfections Modulate Disease Dynamics and Vaccination Success in the Era of Emerging Infectious Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Brice Armel","family":"Nembot Fogang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Microbiology, School of Medical Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"},{"name":"German-West African Centre for Global Health and Pandemic Prevention (G-WAC), Partner Site Kumasi, Kumasi 03220, Ghana"},{"name":"Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology (IMMIP), University Hospital Bonn (UKB), 53127 Bonn, Germany"},{"name":"Kumasi Centre for Collaborative Research in Tropical Medicine, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Linda Batsa","family":"Debrah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Microbiology, School of Medical Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"},{"name":"German-West African Centre for Global Health and Pandemic Prevention (G-WAC), Partner Site Kumasi, Kumasi 03220, Ghana"},{"name":"Kumasi Centre for Collaborative Research in Tropical Medicine, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Owusu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"German-West African Centre for Global Health and Pandemic Prevention (G-WAC), Partner Site Kumasi, Kumasi 03220, Ghana"},{"name":"Kumasi Centre for Collaborative Research in Tropical Medicine, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"},{"name":"Department of Medical Diagnostics, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0884-9645","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"George","family":"Agyei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Microbiology, School of Medical Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"},{"name":"German-West African Centre for Global Health and Pandemic Prevention (G-WAC), Partner Site Kumasi, Kumasi 03220, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Julia","family":"Meyer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology (IMMIP), University Hospital Bonn (UKB), 53127 Bonn, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jonathan Mawutor","family":"Gmanyami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"German-West African Centre for Global Health and Pandemic Prevention (G-WAC), Partner Site Kumasi, Kumasi 03220, Ghana"},{"name":"Kumasi Centre for Collaborative Research in Tropical Medicine, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"},{"name":"School of Public Health, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8667-2067","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuel","family":"Ritter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology (IMMIP), University Hospital Bonn (UKB), 53127 Bonn, Germany"},{"name":"German-West African Centre for Global Health and Pandemic Prevention (G-WAC), Partner Site Bonn, 53127 Bonn, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kathrin","family":"Arndts","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology (IMMIP), University Hospital Bonn (UKB), 53127 Bonn, Germany"},{"name":"German-West African Centre for Global Health and Pandemic Prevention (G-WAC), Partner Site Bonn, 53127 Bonn, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8972-1757","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Derrick","family":"Adu Mensah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Microbiology, School of Medical Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"},{"name":"Kumasi Centre for Collaborative Research in Tropical Medicine, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"},{"name":"Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Royal Ann College of Health, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"},{"name":"Department of Public Health Education, Akenten Appiah-Menka University of Skills Training and Entrepreneurial Development, Mampong 00032, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4353-2897","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tomabu","family":"Adjobimey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology (IMMIP), University Hospital Bonn (UKB), 53127 Bonn, Germany"},{"name":"Facult\u00e9 des Sciences et Techniques (FAST), Universit\u00e9 d\u2019Abomey Calavi, Abomey Calavi BP 526, Benin"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8671-3831","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Achim","family":"H\u00f6rauf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology (IMMIP), University Hospital Bonn (UKB), 53127 Bonn, Germany"},{"name":"German-West African Centre for Global Health and Pandemic Prevention (G-WAC), Partner Site Bonn, 53127 Bonn, Germany"},{"name":"German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Neglected Tropical Disease, Partner Site Bonn-Cologne, 53127 Bonn, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexander Yaw","family":"Debrah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"German-West African Centre for Global Health and Pandemic Prevention (G-WAC), Partner Site Kumasi, Kumasi 03220, Ghana"},{"name":"Kumasi Centre for Collaborative Research in Tropical Medicine, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S108","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182014000602","article-title":"A Co-Evolutionary Arms Race: Trypanosomes Shaping the Human Genome, Humans Shaping the Trypanosome Genome","volume":"142","author":"Capewell","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eyck, 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