{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T05:15:38Z","timestamp":1787030138423,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,17]],"date-time":"2025-05-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747440000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Silver Family Foundation through the OHSU Faculty Excellence Award"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Malaria, caused by infection with Plasmodium parasites, exacts a heavy toll worldwide. There are two licensed vaccines for malaria as well as two monoclonal antibodies that have shown promising efficacy in field trials. The vaccines and monoclonal antibodies target the major surface protein (circumsporozoite protein, CSP) of Plasmodium falciparum. Yet P. falciparum is only one of the four major species of Plasmodium that infect humans. Plasmodium vivax is the second leading cause of malaria, but the P. vivax vaccine and monoclonal development lags far behind that for P. falciparum owing to the lack of basic preclinical tools such as in vitro culture or mouse models that replicate the key biological features of P. vivax. Notably among these features is the ability to form dormant liver stages (hypnozoites) that reactivate and drive the majority of the P. vivax malaria burden. Plasmodium cynomolgi is a simian parasite which is genotypically very close and phenotypically similar to P. vivax; it can infect non-human primates commonly used in research and replicates many features of P. vivax, including relapsing hypnozoites. Methods: Recently, a strain of P. cynomolgi has been adapted to in vitro cultures allowing parasite transgenesis. Here, we created a transgenic P. cynomolgi parasite in which the endogenous P. cynomolgi CSP has been replaced with P. vivax CSP, with the goal of enabling the preclinical study of anti-P. vivax CSP interventions to protect against primary and relapse infections. Results: We show that the in vitro-generated transgenic Pcy[PvCSP] parasite expresses both serotypes of P. vivax CSP and retains full functionality in vivo, including the ability to transmit to laboratory-reared Anopheles mosquitoes and cause relapsing infections in rhesus macaques. To our knowledge, this is the first gene replacement in a relapsing Plasmodium species. Conclusions: This work can directly enable the in vivo development of anti-P. vivax CSP interventions and provide a blueprint for the study of relapsing malaria through reverse genetics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines13050536","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,19]],"date-time":"2025-05-19T07:34:03Z","timestamp":1747640043000},"page":"536","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Generation of a Transgenic Plasmodium cynomolgi Parasite Expressing Plasmodium vivax Circumsporozoite Protein for Testing P. vivax CSP-Based Malaria Vaccines in Non-Human Primates"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5471-4242","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maya","family":"Aleshnick","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shreeya","family":"Hegde","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Health, Biomedical Research, Novartis, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charlie","family":"Jennison","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children\u2019s Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sebastian A.","family":"Mikolajczak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Health, Biomedical Research, Novartis, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5815-756X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ashley M.","family":"Vaughan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children\u2019s Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Derek","family":"Haumpy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Martinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Judith","family":"Straimer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Health, Biomedical Research, Novartis, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5577-7787","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brandon K.","family":"Wilder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"WHO (2024). 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