{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T03:03:15Z","timestamp":1791946995160,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":107,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,15]],"date-time":"2025-08-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755216000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000199","name":"U.S. Department of Agriculture\u2019s National Institute of Food and Agriculture","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2015-67015-23112"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2015-67015-23112"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000199","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Vaccination is often a highly effective approach for protecting against clinical disease and mortality caused by viruses. However, vaccine efficacy against viral transmission has rarely been assessed, which can provide vital information on the eradication efficacy and sustainability of vaccines in the field. Methods: Here, we evaluated the host mortality, shedding, and direct fish-to-fish transmission protection efficacy of three vaccine regimens (DNA, inactivated, and attenuated) against infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) in rainbow trout. We quantified protection against single- and mixed-genotype IHNV infections when the vaccines were delivered by intramuscular injection, intraperitoneal injection, and bath immersion, respectively, to reflect field conditions. Results: All three vaccine regimens provided significant protection against fish mortality. The DNA vaccine regimen was qualitatively the most protective and the attenuated vaccine regimen the least. However, these three vaccines provided limited protection against viral shedding. Cumulative shedding over the course of the infection was only slightly reduced compared to unvaccinated fish. There was some indication that the viral genotype fish were exposed to influenced vaccine efficacy, perhaps as a result of genetic similarity to the vaccine strain. Likewise, the DNA vaccine reduced direct transmission in fish cohabitation experiments from 100% to 50%. The inactivated and attenuated vaccine had little impact on IHNV transmission. Conclusions: Collectively, our results suggest that existing IHNV vaccines that increase host survival provide minimal virus transmission protection in rainbow trout, which is likely to limit their long-term efficacy in the field. This work contributes to a growing body of evidence that enhancement of the transmission protection of IHNV and other vaccines will likely bolster disease reduction in the field.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines13080864","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,15]],"date-time":"2025-08-15T10:33:42Z","timestamp":1755254022000},"page":"864","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Efficacy of Three Vaccine Regimens Against Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus Transmission Potential in Rainbow Trout"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4987-6893","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juliette","family":"Doumayrou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mary G.","family":"Frazier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hannah N.","family":"Brown","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9209-3077","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrew R.","family":"Wargo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Woo, P.T.K., and Bruno, D.W. (2011). Infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus. Fish Diseases and Disorders, CAB International. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1186\/s13567-016-0341-1","article-title":"Epidemiological characteristics of infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV): A review","volume":"47","author":"Dixon","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1564","DOI":"10.1139\/f76-196","article-title":"A natural epizootic of infectious hematopoietic necrosis in fry of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) at Chilko Lake, British Columbia","volume":"33","author":"Williams","year":"1976","journal-title":"J. Fish. Res. Board. 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