{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T21:07:13Z","timestamp":1788469633467,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,27]],"date-time":"2025-08-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756252800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Toxoplasma gondii is a major cause of zoonotic infections in both humans and animals, resulting in significant mortality in susceptible species, such as New World primates and marsupials. Toxoplasmosis is particularly concerning in zoos and wildlife reserves, where outbreaks threaten conservation efforts for endangered species. In the absence of a commercially available vaccine against toxoplasmosis for humans and captive wild animals, current prevention strategies are limited to restricting the access of cats to enclosures, controlling rodent populations, and maintaining strict food hygiene. Recent research has shown promising results with an intranasal vaccine (VXN-Toxo) composed of maltodextrin nanoparticles conjugated with a purified, inactivated T. gondii parasite. This experimental vaccine does not pose a risk of causing disease and offers advantages such as better stability compared with live pathogen-based vaccines. Methods: This study presents a large-scale evaluation of the effect of VXN-Toxo administered to captive wildlife across 20 zoos in Europe and the Americas between 2017 and 2025. Seven hundred and eighty-four animals, representing over 58 species (including primates, marsupials, rodents, and felids), were vaccinated without any adverse events reported. Results: Retrospective mortality data from 20 participating zoological institutions revealed an overall 96.7% reduction\u2014and, in many cases, a complete elimination\u2014of toxoplasmosis-associated deaths post vaccination. Conclusions: These results demonstrate, for the first time, consistent and broad-spectrum protection against T. gondii of different strains in a wide array of captive wildlife species. This universal vaccine represents a promising tool for toxoplasmosis prevention in zoological collections, with significant implications for animal health and conservation strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines13090910","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,28]],"date-time":"2025-08-28T10:29:18Z","timestamp":1756376958000},"page":"910","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Retrospective Analysis of the Impact of Vaccination with an Inactivated Vaccine on Toxoplasmosis-Associated Mortality in Captive Wildlife"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Angelo","family":"Scuotto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Vaxinano SAS, 84 rue du Dr. Yersin, 59120 Loos, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8178-4879","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniela","family":"Ogonczyk-Makowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vaxinano SAS, 84 rue du Dr. Yersin, 59120 Loos, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alicia","family":"Qui\u00e9vy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pairi Daiza Zoo, Domaine de Cambron, 7940 Brugelette, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"M\u00e9lanie","family":"Berthet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Parc Zoologique du Museum de Besan\u00e7on, La Citadelle, 25000 Besan\u00e7on, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2438-7281","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"K\u00e9vin","family":"Schlax","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Parc d\u2019Isle, 02100 Saint-Quentin, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Didier","family":"Boussarie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"La R\u00e9serve Exotique (The Exotic Garden, Foster\u2019s Center For Small Primates)\u2014Bl\u00e9rancourt, 02300 Bl\u00e9rancourt, France"},{"name":"L\u2019Acad\u00e9mie V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaire de France, 75011 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6026-3721","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexis","family":"Maillot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Amn\u00e9ville Zoo, 57360 Amneville, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Florine","family":"Popelin-Wedlarski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bioparc de Dou\u00e9-La-Fontaine, 49700 Dou\u00e9-la-Fontaine, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Charpentier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"La Palmyre Zoo, 17570 Les Mathes, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ma\u00efalen","family":"Perot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biotropica Zoo, La Coudrette, 27100 Val de Reuil, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Beno\u00eet","family":"Quintard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zoo and Botanical Garden of Mulhouse, 68100 Mulhouse, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marloes","family":"van Elderen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Apenheul Zoo, J.C. Wilslaan, 7313 HK Apeldoorn, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Job Benjamin G\u00e9rard","family":"Stumpel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wildlands, 7811 AP Emmen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1036-4898","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stamatios Alan","family":"Tahas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Copenhagen Zoo, 2000 Frederiksberg, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Modlinska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Curraghs Wildlife Park, Ballaugh IM7 5EA, Isle of Man"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-1635-7771","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vikt\u00f3ria","family":"S\u00f3s-Koroknai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Budapest Zoo and Botanical Garden, 1146 Budapest, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5449-1157","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexandre","family":"Azevedo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lagos Zoo, 8600-013 Lagos, Portugal"},{"name":"CIVG\u2014Vasco da Gama Research Center, EUVG\u2014Vasco da Gama University School, 3020-210 Coimbra, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7047-1009","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda del Carmen Carmona","family":"Muci\u00f1o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Africam Safari Zoo, Puebla 72960, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-1072-6874","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mariana Castilho","family":"Martins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Quinzinho de Barros Zoo, Sorocaba 18020-268, SP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carlos","family":"Madrid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Parque de la Conservaci\u00f3n of M\u00e9dellin, Medell\u00edn 050024, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juliana Pe\u00f1a","family":"Stadlin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cali Zoo, FZC Fundaci\u00f3n Zool\u00f3gica de Cali, Cali 760045, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6977-6486","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lina M.","family":"Henao-Montoya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorio de la Fundaci\u00f3n Bot\u00e1nica y Zool\u00f3gica de Barranquilla, Barranquilla 080001, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Didier","family":"Betbeder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vaxinano SAS, 84 rue du Dr. Yersin, 59120 Loos, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dubey, J.P. 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