{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,3]],"date-time":"2026-11-03T14:33:09Z","timestamp":1793716389383,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":140,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,23]],"date-time":"2025-10-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761177600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010751","name":"ANID-CHILE","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1201600"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1201600"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010751","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"BIOSONDA S.A."},{"name":"ANID fellowship","award":["21210946"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21210946"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Vaccine adjuvants play a crucial role in the field of vaccinology, yet they remain one of the least developed and poorly characterized components of modern biomedical research. The limited availability of clinically approved adjuvants highlights the urgent need for new molecules with well-defined mechanisms and improved safety profiles. Hemocyanins, large copper-containing metalloglycoproteins found in mollusks, represent a unique class of natural immunomodulators. Hemocyanins serve as carrier proteins that help generate antibodies against peptides and hapten molecules. They also function as non-specific protein-based adjuvants (PBAs) in both experimental human and veterinary vaccines. Their mannose-rich N-glycans allow for multivalent binding to innate immune receptors, including C-type lectin receptors (e.g., MR, DC-SIGN) and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), thereby activating both MyD88- and TRIF-dependent signaling pathways. Hemocyanins consistently favor Th1-skewed immune responses, which is a key characteristic of their adjuvant potential. Remarkably, their conformational stability supports slow intracellular degradation and facilitates dual routing through MHC-II and MHC-I pathways, thereby enhancing both CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell responses. Several hemocyanins are currently being utilized in biomedical research, including Keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) from Megathura crenulata, along with those from other gastropods such as Concholepas concholepas (CCH), Fissurella latimarginata (FLH), Rapana venosa (RvH), and Helix pomatia (HpH), all of which display strong immunomodulatory properties, making them promising candidates as adjuvants for next-generation vaccines against infectious diseases and therapeutic immunotherapies for cancer. However, their structural complexity has posed challenges for their recombinant production, thus limiting their availability from natural sources. This reliance introduces variability, scalability issues, and challenges related to regulatory compliance. Future research should focus on defining the hemocyanin immunopeptidome and isolating minimal peptides that retain their adjuvant activity. Harnessing advances in structural biology, immunology, and machine learning will be critical in transforming hemocyanins into safe, reproducible, and versatile immunomodulators. This review highlights recent progress in understanding how hemocyanins modulate mammalian immunity through their unique structural features\u00a0and highlights their potential implications as potent PBAs for vaccine development and other biomedical applications. By addressing the urgent need for novel immunostimulatory platforms, hemocyanins could significantly advance vaccine design and immunotherapy approaches.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines13111086","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,24]],"date-time":"2025-10-24T00:47:36Z","timestamp":1761266856000},"page":"1086","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Hemocyanins: Microscopic Giants with Unique Structural Features for Applications in Biomedicine"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Michelle L.","family":"Salazar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Fundaci\u00f3n Ciencia y Tecnolog\u00eda para el Desarrollo (FUCITED), Santiago 7750269, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Diego A.","family":"D\u00edaz-Dinamarca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fundaci\u00f3n Ciencia y Tecnolog\u00eda para el Desarrollo (FUCITED), Santiago 7750269, Chile"},{"name":"Pathology Advanced Translational Research Unit (PATRU), Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Javier","family":"Bustamante","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fundaci\u00f3n Ciencia y Tecnolog\u00eda para el Desarrollo (FUCITED), Santiago 7750269, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Felipe","family":"Vergara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fundaci\u00f3n Ciencia y Tecnolog\u00eda para el Desarrollo (FUCITED), Santiago 7750269, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Augusto","family":"Manubens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fundaci\u00f3n Ciencia y Tecnolog\u00eda para el Desarrollo (FUCITED), Santiago 7750269, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fabi\u00e1n","family":"Salazar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fundaci\u00f3n Ciencia y Tecnolog\u00eda para el Desarrollo (FUCITED), Santiago 7750269, Chile"},{"name":"Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9711-2222","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda In\u00e9s","family":"Becker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fundaci\u00f3n Ciencia y Tecnolog\u00eda para el Desarrollo (FUCITED), Santiago 7750269, Chile"},{"name":"Departamento de Investigaci\u00f3n y Desarrollo, Biosonda Corp., Santiago 7750629, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/0019-2791(64)90030-8","article-title":"Immunochemical Properties of Hemocyanin","volume":"1","author":"Weigle","year":"1964","journal-title":"Immunochemistry"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM196707272770401","article-title":"Immunosuppressive therapy. 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