{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]],"date-time":"2026-01-31T20:26:25Z","timestamp":1769891185125,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]],"date-time":"2026-01-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769644800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai funding"},{"name":"NIH","award":["2R01AI145870-06"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2R01AI145870-06"]}]},{"name":"NIH","award":["75N93019C00051"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["75N93019C00051"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: We previously developed a low-cost vaccine based on Newcastle disease virus expressing a stabilized pre-fusion spike of SARS-CoV-2 (NDV-HXP-S), which has shown safety and immunogenicity in pre-clinical and clinical studies. Due to the emergence of immune-evasive variants and the need to protect vulnerable populations, we evaluated adjuvanted NDV-HXP-S vaccine formulations to enhance and broaden immune responses. Methods: We tested the antibody responses of mice immunized intramuscularly with an inactivated NDV-HXP-S vaccine adjuvanted with AddaVax, AddaS03, Alhydrogel adjuvant 2% (Alum), or Quil-A. Results: AddaVax, AddaS03, and Alum induced the strongest IgG responses to the ancestral spike protein, boosted cross-reactive antibodies against both S1 and S2 subunits, and elicited high cross-neutralizing titers. Conclusions: The present results highlight the critical role of adjuvant selection in shaping both the magnitude and breadth of the immune response induced by the NDV-HXP-S vaccine. AddaVax, AddaS03, and Alum stand out as promising candidates to enhance NDV-HXP-S vaccine immunogenicity, with potential applications in booster strategies against SARS-CoV-2, enabling dose sparing and reducing costs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines14020138","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]],"date-time":"2026-01-29T10:08:57Z","timestamp":1769681337000},"page":"138","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["AddaVax, AddaS03, and Alum Effectively Enhance Cross-Reactive and Cross-Neutralizing Antibody Responses Against SARS-CoV-2 Induced by the Inactivated NDV-HXP-S Vaccine in Mice"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0529-7558","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Luis","family":"Mart\u00ednez-Guevara","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tsoi Ying","family":"Lai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1106-7342","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mitali","family":"Mishra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3694-6597","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefan","family":"Slamanig","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA"},{"name":"Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, 1012 WP Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7920-5505","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Irene","family":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Dom\u00ednguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-2024-109X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adam","family":"Abdeljawad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Minh Thu","family":"Hoang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gagandeep","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA"},{"name":"Center for Vaccine Research and Pandemic Preparedness (C-VaRPP), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7786-3547","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shreyas","family":"Kowdle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0760-1709","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benhur","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4121-776X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Florian","family":"Krammer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA"},{"name":"Center for Vaccine Research and Pandemic Preparedness (C-VaRPP), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA"},{"name":"Department of Pathology, Molecular and Cell-Based Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA"},{"name":"Ignaz Semmelweis Institute, Interuniversity Institute for Infection Research, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria"},{"name":"Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Science Outreach and Pandemic Preparedness at the Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0337-5823","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peter","family":"Palese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2435-5047","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Weina","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2025, July 21). Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV): Situation Report. Available online: https:\/\/iris.who.int\/handle\/10665\/330760."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1408","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-020-0771-4","article-title":"Evolutionary Origins of the SARS-CoV-2 Sarbecovirus Lineage Responsible for the COVID-19 Pandemic","volume":"5","author":"Boni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"tfae045","DOI":"10.1093\/toxres\/tfae045","article-title":"The Global Impact of COVID-19: A Comprehensive Analysis of Its Effects on Various Aspects of Life","volume":"13","author":"Naveed","year":"2024","journal-title":"Toxicol. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, M.Y., Zhao, R., Gao, L.J., Gao, X.F., Wang, D.P., and Cao, J.M. (2020). SARS-CoV-2: Structure, Biology, and Structure-Based Therapeutics Development. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.587269"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duan, L., Zheng, Q., Zhang, H., Niu, Y., Lou, Y., and Wang, H. (2020). The SARS-CoV-2 Spike Glycoprotein Biosynthesis, Structure, Function, and Antigenicity: Implications for the Design of Spike-Based Vaccine Immunogens. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.576622"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-020-0688-y","article-title":"Functional Assessment of Cell Entry and Receptor Usage for SARS-CoV-2 and Other Lineage B Betacoronaviruses","volume":"5","author":"Letko","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2571-7","article-title":"Potent Neutralizing Antibodies against Multiple Epitopes on SARS-CoV-2 Spike","volume":"584","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1821","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2021.02.035","article-title":"Extremely Potent Human Monoclonal Antibodies from COVID-19 Convalescent Patients","volume":"184","author":"Andreano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abc5902","article-title":"Potent Neutralizing Antibodies from COVID-19 Patients Define Multiple Targets of Vulnerability","volume":"369","author":"Brouwer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2021.02.032","article-title":"The Antigenic Anatomy of SARS-CoV-2 Receptor Binding Domain","volume":"184","author":"Dejnirattisai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-022-00784-3","article-title":"Broadly Neutralizing Antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 and Other Human Coronaviruses","volume":"23","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6197","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-26499-y","article-title":"A Newcastle Disease Virus Expressing a Stabilized Spike Protein of SARS-CoV-2 Induces Protective Immune Responses","volume":"12","author":"Sun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0153822","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.01538-22","article-title":"Trivalent NDV-HXP-S Vaccine Protects against Phylogenetically Distant SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concern in Mice","volume":"10","author":"Slamanig","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126586","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2024.126586","article-title":"A Single Immunization with Intranasal Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV)-Based XBB.1.5 Variant Vaccine Reduces Disease and Transmission in Animals against Matched-Variant Challenge","volume":"45","author":"Slamanig","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2020.103132","article-title":"Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV) Expressing the Spike Protein of SARS-CoV-2 as a Live Virus Vaccine Candidate","volume":"62","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"eBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, W., McCroskery, S., Liu, W.C., Leist, S.R., Liu, Y., Albrecht, R.A., Slamanig, S., Oliva, J., Amanat, F., and Sch\u00e4fer, A. (2020). A Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV) Expressing a Membrane-Anchored Spike as a Cost-Effective Inactivated SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine. Vaccines, 8.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.07.30.229120"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Dom\u00ednguez, I., Abdeljawad, A., Lai, T.Y., Boza, M., McCroskery, S., Lemus, N., Slamanig, S., Singh, G., Warang, P., and Yellin, T. (2025). Mucosal Multivalent NDV-Based Vaccine Provides Cross-Reactive Immune Responses against SARS-CoV-2 Variants in Animal Models. Front. Immunol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1524477"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2024.105185","article-title":"Intranasal SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Variant Vaccines Elicit Humoral and Cellular Mucosal Immunity in Female Mice","volume":"105","author":"Slamanig","year":"2024","journal-title":"eBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-023-00662-6","article-title":"Interim Safety and Immunogenicity Results from an NDV-Based COVID-19 Vaccine Phase I Trial in Mexico","volume":"8","author":"Torres","year":"2023","journal-title":"NPJ Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2022.101323","article-title":"Safety and Immunogenicity of an Inactivated Recombinant Newcastle Disease Virus Vaccine Expressing SARS-CoV-2 Spike: Interim Results of a Randomised, Placebo-Controlled, Phase 1 Trial","volume":"45","author":"Pitisuttithum","year":"2022","journal-title":"eClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3621","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2022.04.078","article-title":"Safety and Immunogenicity of an Egg-Based Inactivated Newcastle Disease Virus Vaccine Expressing SARS-CoV-2 Spike: Interim Results of a Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Phase 1\/2 Trial in Vietnam","volume":"40","author":"Lawpoolsri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126680","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2024.126680","article-title":"Safety and Immunogenicity of an Inactivated Recombinant New-castle Disease Virus Vaccine Expressing SARS-CoV-2 Spike: Results of a Randomized Vaccine-Controlled Phase I ADAPTCOV Trial in Brazil","volume":"52","author":"Calado","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Government Pharmaceutical Organization (GPO) (2025, July 22). GPO Announced an Emergency Use Authorization of the COVID-19 Vaccine as a Booster Dose After a Successful Clinical Trial Phase 3. Available online: https:\/\/www.gpo.or.th\/post\/x4ql6u9g-1730730563688."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Comisi\u00f3n Federal para la Protecci\u00f3n contra Riesgos Sanitarios (2025, July 22). Cofepris Aprueba la Vacuna Mexicana Patria Contra COVID-19, Comunicado 79\/2024, Available online: https:\/\/www.gob.mx\/cofepris\/articulos\/cofepris-aprueba-la-vacuna-mexicana-patria-contra-covid-19#:~:text=El%20equipo%20multidisciplinario%20de%20dictamen,las%20instituciones%20p%C3%BAblicas%20que%20conforman."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1466","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2102017","article-title":"Neutralizing Activity of BNT162b2-Elicited Serum","volume":"384","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03777-9","article-title":"Reduced sensitivity of SARS-CoV-2 variant Delta to antibody neutralization","volume":"596","author":"Planas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-04385-3","article-title":"Omicron escapes the majority of existing SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies","volume":"602","author":"Cao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"850","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abf9302","article-title":"Prospective mapping of viral mutations that escape antibodies used to treat COVID-19","volume":"371","author":"Starr","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2020.11.007","article-title":"Complete Mapping of Mutations to the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Receptor-Binding Domain that Escape Antibody Recognition","volume":"29","author":"Greaney","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2021.03.005","article-title":"Potent SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies directed against spike N-terminal domain target a single supersite","volume":"29","author":"Cerutti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abc6952","article-title":"A neutralizing human antibody binds to the N-terminal domain of the Spike protein of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"369","author":"Chi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2021.03.028","article-title":"N-terminal domain antigenic mapping reveals a site of vulnerability for SARS-CoV-2","volume":"184","author":"McCallum","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabi9215","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.abi9215","article-title":"A human antibody reveals a conserved site on beta-coronavirus spike proteins and confers protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"14","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1109","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abj3321","article-title":"Broad betacoronavirus neutralization by a stem helix-specific human antibody","volume":"373","author":"Pinto","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4341","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2011.09.061","article-title":"The Mechanism of Action of MF59\u2014An Innately Attractive Adjuvant Formulation","volume":"30","author":"Ott","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-1823-5_10","article-title":"MF59 Design and Evaluation of a Safe and Potent Adjuvant for Human Vaccines","volume":"6","author":"Ott","year":"1995","journal-title":"Pharm. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1586\/erv.12.140","article-title":"The History of MF59\u00ae Adjuvant: A Phoenix That Arose from the Ashes","volume":"12","author":"Ott","year":"2013","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2461","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2011.01.011","article-title":"Adjuvant System AS03 Containing \u03b1-Tocopherol Modulates Innate Immune Response and Leads to Improved Adaptive Immunity","volume":"29","author":"Morel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3006","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2019.04.048","article-title":"Safety of AS03-Adjuvanted Influenza Vaccines: A Review of the Evidence","volume":"37","author":"Cohet","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1586\/erv.11.192","article-title":"Development and Evaluation of AS03, an Adjuvant System Containing \u03b1-Tocopherol and Squalene in an Oil-in-Water Emulsion","volume":"11","author":"Vaughn","year":"2012","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1038\/s41573-021-00163-y","article-title":"Emerging Concepts in the Science of Vaccine Adjuvants","volume":"20","author":"Pulendran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"CD013086","article-title":"Aluminium Adjuvants Used in Vaccines","volume":"2018","author":"Djurisic","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"349","article-title":"A Study of the Isolation and Characterization of the Saponin Quil a. Evaluation of Its Adjuvant Activity, with a Special Reference to the Application in the Vaccination of Cattle against Foot-and-Mouth Disease","volume":"8","author":"Dalsgaard","year":"1978","journal-title":"Acta Vet. Scand."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01240612","article-title":"Saponin Adjuvants\u2014III. Isolation of a Substance from Quillaja Saponaria Molina with Adjuvant Activity in Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccines","volume":"44","author":"Dalsgaard","year":"1974","journal-title":"Arch. Gesamte. Virusforsch."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Croda International Plc (2025, July 22). Quil-A. Available online: https:\/\/www.crodapharma.com\/en-gb\/product-finder\/product\/4375-quil-a."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1186\/s13567-023-01151-3","article-title":"An Inventory of Adjuvants Used for Vaccination in Horses: The Past, the Present and the Future","volume":"54","author":"Carnet","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-023-00607-z","article-title":"QuilA\u00ae Adjuvanted Coxevac\u00ae Sustains Th1-CD8+-Type Immunity and Increases Protection in Coxiella burnetii-Challenged Goats","volume":"8","author":"Tomaiuolo","year":"2023","journal-title":"npj Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1038\/s41589-023-01538-5","article-title":"Complete Biosynthesis of the Potent Vaccine Adjuvant QS-21","volume":"20","author":"Martin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1812","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2010.12.090","article-title":"Vaccine adjuvants alum and MF59 induce rapid recruitment of neutrophils and monocytes that participate in antigen transport to draining lymph nodes","volume":"29","author":"Calabro","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2510","article-title":"Towards an understanding of the adjuvant action of aluminium","volume":"9","author":"Marrack","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1122","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06939","article-title":"Crucial role for the Nalp3 inflammasome in the immunostimulatory properties of aluminium adjuvants","volume":"453","author":"Eisenbarth","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20071087","article-title":"Alum adjuvant boosts adaptive immunity by inducing uric acid and activating inflammatory dendritic cells","volume":"205","author":"Kool","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M115.683011","article-title":"Identification of QS-21 as an Inflammasome-activating Molecular Component of Saponin Adjuvants","volume":"291","author":"Vladimer","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-0913-5","article-title":"A Serological Assay to Detect SARS-CoV-2 Seroconversion in Humans","volume":"26","author":"Amanat","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e100","DOI":"10.1002\/cpmc.100","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Seroconversion in Humans: A Detailed Protocol for a Serological Assay, Antigen Production, and Test Setup","volume":"57","author":"Stadlbauer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Protoc. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4598","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-24909-9","article-title":"Neutralizing Activity of Sputnik V Vaccine Sera against SARS-CoV-2 Variants","volume":"12","author":"Ikegame","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabo2847","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.abo2847","article-title":"An Inactivated NDV-HXP-S COVID-19 Vaccine Elicits a Higher Proportion of Neutralizing Antibodies in Humans than MRNA Vaccination","volume":"15","author":"Raskin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."}],"container-title":["Vaccines"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-393X\/14\/2\/138\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]],"date-time":"2026-01-31T05:16:59Z","timestamp":1769836619000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-393X\/14\/2\/138"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["vaccines14020138"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/vaccines14020138","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-393X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-393X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]]}}}