{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T17:13:10Z","timestamp":1789578790432,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":102,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773187200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection induces heterogeneous immune responses that influence both acute disease severity and long-term immune remodeling. A key question in the context of infection and vaccination is whether SARS-CoV-2 exerts direct oncogenic effects or instead acts as a transient immunological stressor capable of reinforcing tumor-permissive pathways. Current evidence does not support classical viral oncogenesis. Rather, severe infection is characterized by early interferon (IFN) imbalance followed by NF-\u03baB-dominant inflammatory amplification, promoting sustained IL-6\/JAK\u2013STAT3 and MAPK signaling, chronic cytokine production, metabolic reprogramming, and impaired antitumor immune surveillance. At the molecular level, viral structural proteins modulate host signaling networks. The spike (S1) protein engages TLR2\/TLR4\u2013MyD88 pathways, activating NF-\u03baB and MAPK cascades, while the membrane (M) protein reinforces NF-\u03baB\u2013STAT3 circuits linked to epithelial\u2013mesenchymal transition and inflammatory gene expression. These mechanisms intensify pre-existing oncogenic signaling without initiating malignant transformation. Tissue-specific responses are further shaped by IFN competence, renin\u2013angiotensin system balance, and metabolic context. In parallel, immune evasion programs shared by chronic viral infection and cancer, including checkpoint upregulation, impaired antigen presentation, and suppressive myeloid expansion, may be transiently reinforced following severe infection. In contrast, SARS-CoV-2 vaccination induces spatially restricted, self-limited innate activation without sustained inflammatory signaling or persistent antigen exposure. By preventing severe disease and chronic immune dysregulation, vaccination interrupts pathways hypothesized to intersect with cancer biology, with no evidence of increased cancer incidence. Ongoing longitudinal studies are required to clarify the long-term oncologic implications of post-infectious immune remodeling.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines14030255","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T09:00:37Z","timestamp":1773219637000},"page":"255","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Vaccination, Immune Dysregulation, and Cancer"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3993-7939","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dace","family":"Pjanova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Microbiology and Virology, Riga Stradins University, LV-1067 Riga, Latvia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aysha","family":"Rafeeque","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Microbiology and Virology, Riga Stradins University, LV-1067 Riga, Latvia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e86014","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.86014","article-title":"Immune mechanisms underlying COVID-19 pathology and post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC)","volume":"12","author":"Mohandas","year":"2023","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Echchannaoui, H., Perreau, M., Schild, H., and Theobald, M. 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