{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T09:43:13Z","timestamp":1773394993302,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":123,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773360000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Qatar Research, Development and Innovation Council, Academic Research","award":["ARG01-0521-230249"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ARG01-0521-230249"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>As SARS-CoV-2 continues to evolve with increased transmissibility and immune evasion, the need for vaccines that provide broader and more durable protection has become increasingly urgent. The extensive research spurred by the pandemic has accelerated the development of diverse vaccine platforms, including mRNA, DNA, virus-like particles (VLPs), recombinant proteins, and mosaic mono- and polyvalent vaccines. While several of these platforms have reached regulatory approval and widespread clinical employment, others remain under evaluation or in various stages of clinical development. These vaccines have significantly reduced infection rates, severe disease, and hospitalizations, particularly among high-risk group. Nevertheless, the ongoing emergence of novel variants and subvariants has challenged the efficacy of both existing and newly developed vaccines. This evolving landscape underscores the urgent need for a universal SARS-CoV-2 vaccine platform capable of providing comprehensive and long-lasting immunity. In this review, we evaluate current and emerging strategies for SARS-CoV-2 universal vaccine development, with a focus on antigen design, breadth of immune protection, and clinical feasibility. Attention is given to various universal vaccine platforms such as the mosaic polyvalent spike construct, multi-epitope vaccines targeting the receptor-binding domain (RBD), and approaches centered on the conserved S2 subunit of the spike protein. We also discuss strategies leveraging additional conserved viral proteins and T helper (Th) and cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) epitopes from across coronaviruses. By highlighting the advances in these areas, this review provides a framework to guide the rational design of next-generation universal vaccines capable of delivering broad and durable protection against SARS-CoV-2 variants.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines14030259","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T08:26:19Z","timestamp":1773390379000},"page":"259","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Feasibility of Developing a Universal SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Mohammed","family":"Asaad","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Basic Medical Sciences Department, College of Medicine, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha 2713, Qatar"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mohamed O.","family":"Mustafa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Basic Medical Sciences Department, College of Medicine, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha 2713, Qatar"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yaman","family":"Al-Haneedi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Basic Medical Sciences Department, College of Medicine, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha 2713, Qatar"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lina","family":"Shalaby","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rania","family":"shams Eldin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Basic Medical Sciences Department, College of Medicine, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha 2713, Qatar"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yasar","family":"Mohamedahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hamad Medical Corporation, Doha 3050, Qatar"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7592-2788","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hadi M.","family":"Yassine","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Research Centre, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha 2713, Qatar"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9773-8700","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdallah M.","family":"Abdallah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Basic Medical Sciences Department, College of Medicine, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha 2713, Qatar"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mohamed M.","family":"Emara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Basic Medical Sciences Department, College of Medicine, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha 2713, Qatar"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2025, June 25). Worldometers. Worldometers.Info\/Coronavirus. Available online: https:\/\/www.worldometers.info\/coronavirus\/."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e128","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(25)00015-5","article-title":"Virological and antigenic characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 variants LF.7.2.1, NP.1, and LP.8.1","volume":"25","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106551","DOI":"10.1016\/j.econmod.2023.106551","article-title":"The global economic impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"129","author":"Warwick","year":"2023","journal-title":"Econ. Model."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chaudhary, J.K., Yadav, R., Chaudhary, P.K., Maurya, A., Kant, N., Rugaie, O.A., Haokip, H.R., Yadav, D., Roshan, R., and Prasad, R. (2021). Insights into COVID-19 Vaccine Development Based on Immunogenic Structural Proteins of SARS-CoV-2, Host Immune Responses, and Herd Immunity. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10112949"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e122","DOI":"10.15190\/d.2021.1","article-title":"First COVID-19 Vaccines Receiving the US FDA and EMA Emergency Use Authorization","volume":"9","author":"Fortner","year":"2021","journal-title":"Discoveries"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"WHO (2025, June 25). COVID-19 Vaccine Tracker Organization. Available online: https:\/\/covid19.trackvaccines.org\/."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-023-00878-2","article-title":"The evolution of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"21","author":"Markov","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-022-00784-3","article-title":"Broadly neutralizing antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 and other human coronaviruses","volume":"23","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3402","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csbj.2020.11.002","article-title":"Mutations in the SARS-CoV-2 spike RBD are responsible for stronger ACE2 binding and poor anti-SARS-CoV mAbs cross-neutralization","volume":"18","author":"Masaud","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Struct. Biotechnol. J."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jimenez Ruiz, J.A., Lopez Ramirez, C., and Lopez-Campos, J.L. (2022). Spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant: An in-silico study evaluating spike interactions and immune evasion. Front. Public Health, 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2022.1052241"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-024-01878-5","article-title":"Phenotypic evolution of SARS-CoV-2 spike during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"10","author":"Furnon","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2025.03.002","article-title":"Deciphering SARS-CoV-2 evolution under antibody immune pressure","volume":"46","author":"Jian","year":"2025","journal-title":"Trends Immunol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schoefbaenker, M., G\u00fcnther, T., Lorentzen, E.U., Romberg, M.L., Hennies, M.T., Neddermeyer, R., M\u00fcller, M.M., Mellmann, A., Bojarzyn, C.R., and Lenz, G. (2024). Characterisation of the antibody-mediated selective pressure driving intra-host evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in prolonged infection. PLoS Pathog., 20.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1012624"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104843","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2023.104843","article-title":"Selective adaptation of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron under booster vaccine pressure: A multicentre observational study","volume":"97","author":"Duerr","year":"2023","journal-title":"eBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aljohani, M.S., Bhatta, P., and Hu, X. (2025). Molecular Determinants for the Binding of the Highly Infectious SARS-CoV-2 Omicron (BA.1) Variant to the Human ACE2 Receptor. Physchem, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/physchem5010008"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"921","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-024-08315-x","article-title":"Evolving antibody response to SARS-CoV-2 antigenic shift from XBB to JN.1","volume":"637","author":"Jian","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1725","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2022.07.018","article-title":"Antigenic cartography using sera from sequence-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern infections reveals antigenic divergence of Omicron","volume":"55","author":"Guerra","year":"2022","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35703","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-19609-z","article-title":"Seasonal trends and molecular evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in acute respiratory illness patients during the fifth year of COVID-19, Thailand","volume":"15","author":"Puenpa","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2023.101349","article-title":"Antigenic evolution of SARS coronavirus 2","volume":"62","author":"Mykytyn","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5224","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-41049-4","article-title":"Characterizing SARS-CoV-2 neutralization profiles after bivalent boosting using antigenic cartography","volume":"14","author":"Netzl","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2671","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-38188-z","article-title":"Convergent evolution of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron subvariants leading to the emergence of BQ.1.1 variant","volume":"14","author":"Ito","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e374","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(25)00308-1","article-title":"Antigenic and virological characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 variants BA.3.2, XFG, and NB.1.8.1","volume":"25","author":"Guo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1093\/procel\/pwae007","article-title":"Mutations in the SARS-CoV-2 spike receptor binding domain and their delicate balance between ACE2 affinity and antibody evasion","volume":"15","author":"Xue","year":"2024","journal-title":"Protein Cell"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, L., Sun, J., Wang, Y., Tan, D., Cao, Z., Gao, L., Guan, Y., Jia, X., and Mao, J. (2023). A Review of Inactivated COVID-19 Vaccine Development in China: Focusing on Safety and Efficacy in Special Populations. Vaccines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines11061045"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"100127","article-title":"Virus-like particles (VLPs)-based vaccines against COVID-19: Where do we stand amid the ongoing evolution of SARS-CoV-2?","volume":"9","author":"Manish","year":"2023","journal-title":"Health Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbiomolbio.2023.02.004","article-title":"An overview of the vaccine platforms to combat COVID-19 with a focus on the subunit vaccines","volume":"178","author":"Bayani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1511","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)31665-3","article-title":"Safety and immunogenicity of a mRNA rabies vaccine in healthy adults: An open-label, non-randomised, prospective, first-in-human phase 1 clinical trial","volume":"390","author":"Alberer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5271","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S341694","article-title":"The Development of mRNA Vaccines for Infectious Diseases: Recent Updates","volume":"14","author":"Nitika","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infect. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Magini, D., Giovani, C., Mangiavacchi, S., Maccari, S., Cecchi, R., Ulmer, J.B., De Gregorio, E., Geall, A.J., Brazzoli, M., and Bertholet, S. (2016). Self-Amplifying mRNA Vaccines Expressing Multiple Conserved Influenza Antigens Confer Protection against Homologous and Heterosubtypic Viral Challenge. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0161193"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01786-15","article-title":"Induction of Broad-Based Immunity and Protective Efficacy by Self-amplifying mRNA Vaccines Encoding Influenza Virus Hemagglutinin","volume":"90","author":"Brazzoli","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schnee, M., Vogel, A.B., Voss, D., Petsch, B., Baumhof, P., Kramps, T., and Stitz, L. (2016). An mRNA Vaccine Encoding Rabies Virus Glycoprotein Induces Protection against Lethal Infection in Mice and Correlates of Protection in Adult and Newborn Pigs. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004746"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1186\/s12941-023-00594-y","article-title":"The efficacy and effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines around the world: A mini-review and meta-analysis","volume":"22","author":"Soheili","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Microbiol. Antimicrob."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123610","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2025.123610","article-title":"Efficacy and limitations of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines\u2014A systematic review","volume":"371","author":"Muhammad","year":"2025","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perenkov, A.D., Sergeeva, A.D., Vedunova, M.V., and Krysko, D.V. (2023). In Vitro Transcribed RNA-Based Platform Vaccines: Past, Present, and Future. Vaccines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines11101600"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11928","article-title":"Circular RNAs are a large class of animal RNAs with regulatory potency","volume":"495","author":"Memczak","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bai, Y., Liu, D., He, Q., Liu, J., Mao, Q., and Liang, Z. (2022). Research progress on circular RNA vaccines. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.1091797"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-021-00292-w","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 vaccines strategies: A comprehensive review of phase 3 candidates","volume":"6","author":"Kyriakidis","year":"2021","journal-title":"NPJ Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2099","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-024-01755-1","article-title":"A safe, effective and adaptable live-attenuated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine to reduce disease and transmission using one-to-stop genome modifications","volume":"9","author":"Barut","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abf6840","article-title":"Mosaic nanoparticles elicit cross-reactive immune responses to zoonotic coronaviruses in mice","volume":"371","author":"Cohen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"WHO (2024). Statement on the Antigen Composition of COVID-19 Vaccines, WHO."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-021-00573-0","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 variants, spike mutations and immune escape","volume":"19","author":"Harvey","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1059","DOI":"10.1503\/cmaj.1095949","article-title":"Alpha, Beta, Delta, Gamma: What\u2019s important to know about SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern?","volume":"193","author":"Duong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Can. Med. Assoc. J."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-023-02219-5","article-title":"Real-world COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness against the Omicron BA.2 variant in a SARS-CoV-2 infection-naive population","volume":"29","author":"Lau","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e236","DOI":"10.1016\/S2666-5247(22)00390-1","article-title":"Efficacy of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and the dose\u2013response relationship with three major antibodies: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials","volume":"4","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e103690","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.103690","article-title":"Assessing healthy vaccinee effect in COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness studies: A national cohort study in Qatar","volume":"14","author":"Chemaitelly","year":"2025","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e83","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2114114","article-title":"Waning of BNT162b2 Vaccine Protection against SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Qatar","volume":"385","author":"Chemaitelly","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2023.03.069","article-title":"Vaccine effectiveness against transmission of alpha, delta and omicron SARS-COV-2-infection, Belgian contact tracing, 2021\u20132022","volume":"41","author":"Toon","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4325","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-39736-3","article-title":"Estimating long-term vaccine effectiveness against SARS-CoV-2 variants: A model-based approach","volume":"14","author":"Hogan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1818","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2302462","article-title":"Durability of Bivalent Boosters against Omicron Subvariants","volume":"388","author":"Lin","year":"2023","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2300740","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2024.29.2.2300740","article-title":"Humoral immune escape by current SARS-CoV-2 variants BA.2.86 and JN.1, December 2023","volume":"29","author":"Jeworowski","year":"2024","journal-title":"Euro Surveill"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-022-01143-7","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Omicron is an immune escape variant with an altered cell entry pathway","volume":"7","author":"Willett","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Machado, R.R.G., Candido, \u00c9.D., Aguiar, A.S., Chalup, V.N., Sanches, P.R., Dorlass, E.G., Amgarten, D.E., Pinho, J.R.R., Durigon, E.L., and Oliveira, D.B.L. (2024). Immune Evasion of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Subvariants XBB.1.5, XBB.1.16 and EG.5.1 in a Cohort of Older Adults after ChAdOx1-S Vaccination and BA.4\/5 Bivalent Booster. Vaccines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines12020144"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112443","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2023.112443","article-title":"Enhanced evasion of neutralizing antibody response by Omicron XBB.1.5, CH.1.1, and CA.3.1 variants","volume":"42","author":"Qu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127556","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2025.127556","article-title":"Comparative effectiveness of one versus two doses of COVID-19 vaccines in Qatar: Evidence of converging protection over time","volume":"62","author":"Hiam","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1038\/s41421-022-00463-6","article-title":"Combating the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron (BA.1) and BA.2 with potent bispecific antibodies engineered from non-Omicron neutralizing antibodies","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Discov."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-02162-x","article-title":"Low neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.2.75.2, BQ.1.1 and XBB.1 by parental mRNA vaccine or a BA.5 bivalent booster","volume":"29","author":"Kurhade","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-05644-7","article-title":"Imprinted SARS-CoV-2 humoral immunity induces convergent Omicron RBD evolution","volume":"614","author":"Cao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100664","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvacx.2025.100664","article-title":"Neutralizing antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 variants after COVID-19 vaccination and boosters","volume":"24","author":"Kabita","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vaccine X"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Filip, R., Gheorghita Puscaselu, R., Anchidin-Norocel, L., Dimian, M., and Savage, W.K. (2022). Global Challenges to Public Health Care Systems during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Review of Pandemic Measures and Problems. J. Pers. Med., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm12081295"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1336","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.27487","article-title":"COVID-19 vaccinations: The unknowns, challenges, and hopes","volume":"94","author":"Mohamed","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"600","article-title":"Understanding the challenges to COVID-19 vaccines and treatment options, herd immunity and probability of reinfection","volume":"18","author":"Mohammad","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Taibah Univ. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Attwell, K., Roberts, L., and Blyth, C.C. (2024). Comorbidities and confusion: Addressing COVID-19 vaccine access and information challenges. Commun. Dis. Intell., 48.","DOI":"10.33321\/cdi.2024.48.33"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-025-03412-x","article-title":"COVID-19 is spreading again\u2014How serious is it and what are the symptoms?","volume":"647","author":"Kavanagh","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e23937","DOI":"10.1002\/jcla.23937","article-title":"Analysis of COVID-19 vaccines: Types, thoughts, and application","volume":"35","author":"Han","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lab. Anal."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2024.151224","article-title":"Engineering mRNA vaccine with broad-spectrum protection against SARS-cov-2 variants","volume":"746","author":"Shuang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, S.-C., Rai, C.-I., and Chen, Y.-C. (2023). Challenges and Recent Advancements in COVID-19 Vaccines. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11030787"},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"e7","article-title":"Vaccine Breakthrough Infections with SARS-CoV-2 Variants","volume":"385","author":"Hacisuleyman","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-024-00957-2","article-title":"Broad protection and respiratory immunity of dual mRNA vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 variants","volume":"9","author":"Hajnik","year":"2024","journal-title":"npj Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1038\/s44298-024-00067-9","article-title":"Reduced cross-protective potential of Omicron compared to ancestral SARS-CoV-2 spike vaccines against potentially zoonotic coronaviruses","volume":"2","author":"Renner","year":"2024","journal-title":"npj Viruses"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mart\u00ednez-Flores, D., Zepeda-Cervantes, J., Cruz-Res\u00e9ndiz, A., Aguirre-Sampieri, S., Sampieri, A., and Vaca, L. (2021). SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines Based on the Spike Glycoprotein and Implications of New Viral Variants. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.701501"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2349","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMcibr2106054","article-title":"Spike D614G\u2014A candidate vaccine antigen against Covid-19","volume":"384","author":"Koenig","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0027222","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.00272-22","article-title":"Vaccinia Virus Attenuation by Codon Deoptimization of the A24R Gene for Vaccine Development","volume":"10","author":"Lorenzo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10525","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01565-14","article-title":"Influenza A virus attenuation by codon deoptimization of the NS gene for vaccine development","volume":"88","author":"Nogales","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2205445","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202205445","article-title":"Optimization and Deoptimization of Codons in SARS-CoV-2 and Related Implications for Vaccine Development","volume":"10","author":"Wu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7225","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-51535-y","article-title":"A single-dose intranasal live-attenuated codon deoptimized vaccine provides broad protection against SARS-CoV-2 and its variants","volume":"15","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pochtovyi, A.A., Kustova, D.D., Siniavin, A.E., Dolzhikova, I.V., Shidlovskaya, E.V., Shpakova, O.G., Vasilchenko, L.A., Glavatskaya, A.A., Kuznetsova, N.A., and Iliukhina, A.A. (2023). In Vitro Efficacy of Antivirals and Monoclonal Antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Lineages XBB.1.9.1, XBB.1.9.3, XBB.1.5, XBB.1.16, XBB.2.4, BQ.1.1.45, CH.1.1, and CL.1. Vaccines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines11101533"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5496","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-49656-5","article-title":"A broadly generalizable stabilization strategy for sarbecovirus fusion machinery vaccines","volume":"15","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1411","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2025.04.015","article-title":"Computationally designed proteins mimic antibody immune evasion in viral evolution","volume":"58","author":"Noor","year":"2025","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"Carp, T.-N. (2025, November 12). AI-Driven Prediction of Viral Mutations, Immune Evasion and Comparative Pandemic Risk Ranking to Guide Therapeutic and Vaccine Development. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/profile\/Theodor-Nicolae-Carp\/publication\/395524468_AI-Driven_Prediction_of_Viral_Mutations_Immune_Evasion_and_Comparative_Pandemic_Risk_Ranking_to_Guide_Therapeutic_and_Vaccine_Development\/links\/6914c8aab8ea705bab99e49d\/AI-Driven-Prediction-of-Viral-Mutations-Immune-Evasion-and-Comparative-Pandemic-Risk-Ranking-to-Guide-Therapeutic-and-Vaccine-Development.pdf."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ong, E., Wong, M.U., Huffman, A., and He, Y. (2020). COVID-19 coronavirus vaccine design using reverse vaccinology and machine learning. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01581"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-024-00922-z","article-title":"Universal subunit vaccine protects against multiple SARS-CoV-2 variants and SARS-CoV","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"npj Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1284","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-45495-6","article-title":"Broad protection against clade 1 sarbecoviruses after a single immunization with cocktail spike-protein-nanoparticle vaccine","volume":"15","author":"Halfmann","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabq0839","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abq0839","article-title":"Mosaic RBD nanoparticles protect against challenge by diverse sarbecoviruses in animal models","volume":"377","author":"Cohen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17749","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.4c03075","article-title":"A Nanoparticle Vaccine Displaying Conserved Epitopes of the Preexisting Neutralizing Antibody Confers Broad Protection against SARS-CoV-2 Variants","volume":"18","author":"Wu","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1038\/s41421-024-00648-1","article-title":"Potent and broadly neutralizing antibodies against sarbecoviruses induced by sequential COVID-19 vaccination","volume":"10","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Discov."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2023.02.005","article-title":"Broadly neutralizing anti-S2 antibodies protect against all three human betacoronaviruses that cause deadly disease","volume":"56","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heo, C.K., Lim, W.H., Yang, J., Son, S., Kim, S.J., Kim, D.J., Poo, H., and Cho, E.W. (2023). Novel S2 subunit-specific antibody with broad neutralizing activity against SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1307693"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1553","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-45404-x","article-title":"Prefusion-stabilized SARS-CoV-2 S2-only antigen provides protection against SARS-CoV-2 challenge","volume":"15","author":"Hsieh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1007\/s12026-025-09675-w","article-title":"A nasal vaccine candidate based on S2 and N proteins from SARS-CoV-2 generates a broad antibody response systemically and in the lower respiratory tract","volume":"73","author":"Lobaina","year":"2025","journal-title":"Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prakash, S., Dhanushkodi, N.R., Singer, M., Quadiri, A., Zayou, L., Vahed, H., Coulon, P.G., Ibraim, I.C., Tafoya, C., and Hitchcock, L. (2024). A Broad-Spectrum Multi-Antigen mRNA\/LNP-Based Pan-Coronavirus Vaccine Induced Potent Cross-Protective Immunity Against Infection and Disease Caused by Highly Pathogenic and Heavily Spike-Mutated SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concern in the Syrian Hamster Model. bioRxiv [Preprint], 2024.02.14.580225.","DOI":"10.1101\/2024.02.14.580225"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prakash, S., Dhanushkodi, N.R., Zayou, L., Ibraim, I.C., Quadiri, A., Coulon, P.G., Tifrea, D.F., Suzer, B., Shaik, A.M., and Chilukuri, A. (2024). Cross-protection induced by highly conserved human B, CD4(+), and CD8(+) T-cell epitopes-based vaccine against severe infection, disease, and death caused by multiple SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1328905"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, C.Y., Peng, W.J., Kuo, B.S., Ho, Y.H., Wang, M.S., Yang, Y.T., Chang, P.Y., Shen, Y.H., and Hwang, K.P. (2023). Toward a pan-SARS-CoV-2 vaccine targeting conserved epitopes on spike and non-spike proteins for potent, broad and durable immune responses. PLoS Pathog., 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1010870"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-024-13331-y","article-title":"Design of the conserved epitope peptide of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein as the broad-spectrum COVID-19 vaccine","volume":"108","author":"Chang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2164219","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2022.2164219","article-title":"The role of SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid protein in antiviral immunity and vaccine development","volume":"12","author":"Yu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lobaina, Y., Chen, R., Suzarte, E., Ai, P., Huerta, V., Musacchio, A., Silva, R., Tan, C., Mart\u00edn, A., and Lazo, L. (2024). The Nucleocapsid Protein of SARS-CoV-2, Combined with ODN-39M, Is a Potential Component for an Intranasal Bivalent Vaccine with Broader Functionality. Viruses, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/v16030418"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9313267","DOI":"10.1155\/2024\/9313267","article-title":"The Key to Increase Immunogenicity of Next-Generation COVID-19 Vaccines Lies in the Inclusion of the SARS-CoV-2 Nucleocapsid Protein","volume":"2024","author":"Shrivastava","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Primard, C., Monch\u00e2tre-Leroy, E., Del Campo, J., Valsesia, S., Nikly, E., Chevandier, M., Bou\u00e9, F., Servat, A., Wasniewski, M., and Picard-Meyer, E. (2023). OVX033, a nucleocapsid-based vaccine candidate, provides broad-spectrum protection against SARS-CoV-2 variants in a hamster challenge model. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1188605"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1621","DOI":"10.3201\/eid3008.240659","article-title":"Detection of Nucleocapsid Antibodies Associated with Primary SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Unvaccinated and Vaccinated Blood Donors","volume":"30","author":"Grebe","year":"2024","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01796-23","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.01796-23","article-title":"Distinguishing SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccine responses up to 18 months post-infection using nucleocapsid protein and receptor-binding domain antibodies","volume":"11","author":"Jarlhelt","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meza, J., Glass, E., Sandhu, A.K., Li, Y., Karanika, S., Fessler, K., Hui, Y., Schill, C., Wang, T., and Zhang, J. (2025). Novel Vaccines Targeting the Highly Conserved SARS-CoV-2 ORF3a Ectodomain Elicit Immunogenicity in Mouse Models. Vaccines, 13.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202501.0305.v1"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumari, M., Liang, K.-H., Su, S.-C., Lin, H.-T., Lu, Y.-F., Wu, M.-J., Chen, W.-Y., and Wu, H.-C. (2024). Multivalent mRNA Vaccine Elicits Broad Protection against SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concern. Vaccines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines12070714"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guenthoer, J., Garrett, M.E., Lilly, M., Depierreux, D.M., Ruiz, F., Chi, M., Stoddard, C.I., Chohan, V., Yaffe, Z.A., and Sung, K. (2024). The S2 subunit of spike encodes diverse targets for functional antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2. PLoS Pathog., 20.","DOI":"10.1101\/2024.02.26.582219"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-55824-y","article-title":"Multivalent S2 subunit vaccines provide broad protection against Clade 1 sarbecoviruses in female mice","volume":"16","author":"Halfmann","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-024-01822-3","article-title":"Nasal vaccination of triple-RBD scaffold protein with flagellin elicits long-term protection against SARS-CoV-2 variants including JN.1","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10778","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-55087-z","article-title":"Trivalent recombinant protein vaccine induces cross-neutralization against XBB lineage and JN.1 subvariants: Preclinical and phase 1 clinical trials","volume":"15","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e15821","DOI":"10.15252\/emmm.202215821","article-title":"A universal SARS-CoV DNA vaccine inducing highly cross-reactive neutralizing antibodies and T cells","volume":"14","author":"Appelberg","year":"2022","journal-title":"EMBO Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohammadipour, S., Tavakkoli, H., Fatemi, S.N., Sharifi, A., and Mahmoudi, P. (2025). Designing a multi-epitope universal vaccine for concurrent infections of SARS-CoV-2 and influenza viruses using an immunoinformatics approach. BMC Infect. Dis., 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-025-11066-3"},{"key":"ref_108","unstructured":"US Department of Health HaN (2025, May 01). HHS, NIH Launch Next-Generation Universal Vaccine Platform for Pandemic-Prone Viruses, Available online: https:\/\/www.nih.gov\/news-events\/news-releases\/hhs-nih-launch-next-generation-universal-vaccine-platform-pandemic-prone-viruses."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2314392120","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2314392120","article-title":"Low-sugar universal mRNA vaccine against coronavirus variants with deletion of glycosites in the S2 or stem of SARS-CoV-2 spike messenger RNA (mRNA)","volume":"120","author":"Cheng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u011fuzo\u011flu, T.\u00c7., Hanifehnezhad, A., Khabbazi, S.D., Karayel-Hac\u0131o\u011flu, \u0130., Kaynarcal\u0131dan, O., F\u0131rat, Z., Filazi, N., Erdem-\u015eahinkesen, E., G\u00fcl, B., and Karabulut, M.C. (2024). Immunogenicity and Protective Efficacy of Baculovirus-Expressed SARS-CoV-2 Envelope Protein in Mice as a Universal Vaccine Candidate. Vaccines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines12090977"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-024-00997-8","article-title":"Broad cross neutralizing antibodies against sarbecoviruses generated by SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination in humans","volume":"9","author":"Hu","year":"2024","journal-title":"npj Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mambelli, F., de Araujo, A.C.V.S.C., Farias, J.P., de Andrade, K.Q., Ferreira, L.C.S., Minoprio, P., Leite, L.C.C., and Oliveira, S.C. (2025). An Update on Anti-COVID-19 Vaccines and the Challenges to Protect Against New SARS-CoV-2 Variants. Pathogens, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens14010023"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106998","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mimet.2024.106998","article-title":"Leveraging artificial intelligence in vaccine development: A narrative review","volume":"224","author":"David","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, G., Liu, Z., Van Der Maaten, L., and Weinberger, K.Q. (2017). Densely connected convolutional networks. IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2017.243"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.3410\/M3-16","article-title":"The challenge of developing universal vaccines","volume":"3","author":"Rappuoli","year":"2011","journal-title":"F1000 Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-022-00597-4","article-title":"Challenges and developments in universal vaccine design against SARS-CoV-2 variants","volume":"7","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"NPJ Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Madsen, A., and Cox, R.J. (2020). Prospects and Challenges in the Development of Universal Influenza Vaccines. Vaccines, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines8030361"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1801054","article-title":"Development of a Universal Influenza Vaccine","volume":"202","author":"Estrada","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e30208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e30208","article-title":"Mutational dynamics of SARS-CoV-2: Impact on future COVID-19 vaccine strategies","volume":"10","author":"Faraji","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"nwaf138","DOI":"10.1093\/nsr\/nwaf138","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 keeps evolving, so must our research efforts","volume":"12","author":"Ma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Natl. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100080","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pscia.2025.100080","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in human immunodeficiency virus mutation prediction and drug design: Advancing personalized treatment and prevention","volume":"3","author":"Oyediran","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pharm. Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jan, S., Fratzke, A.P., Felgner, J., Hernandez-Davies, J.E., Liang, L., Nakajima, R., Jasinskas, A., Supnet, M., Jain, A., and Felgner, P.L. (2023). Multivalent vaccines demonstrate immunogenicity and protect against Coxiella burnetii aerosol challenge. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1192821"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2013.04.003","article-title":"The prospects and challenges of universal vaccines for influenza","volume":"21","author":"Subbarao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."}],"container-title":["Vaccines"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-393X\/14\/3\/259\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T08:47:11Z","timestamp":1773391631000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-393X\/14\/3\/259"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]]},"references-count":123,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]}},"alternative-id":["vaccines14030259"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/vaccines14030259","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-393X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-393X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]]}}}