{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T07:27:42Z","timestamp":1774510062507,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774310400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000276","name":"Department of Health and Social Care","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["10086291"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10086291"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000276","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Coronaviruses are a family of positive-sense RNA viruses that cause respiratory and gastrointestinal disease in mammals and birds. Their zoonotic nature and high mutability make them a pandemic threat. UNICOR-v is a pre-pandemic, pan-coronavirus vaccine composed of an adjuvanted mix of twelve synthetic peptides originating from conserved regions within Nsp12 and M coronavirus proteins containing clusters of predicted T-cell epitopes. Here, we evaluate the immunogenicity of UNICOR-v and its efficacy against Middle East Respiratory Syndrome-related coronavirus (MERS). Methods: Animals were vaccinated with an adjuvanted equimolar mix of UNICOR-v. Humoral and cellular immunogenicity were assessed 28 days later through ELISA and FLUOROSpot. Vaccine efficacy was assessed in a DPP4 knock-in (HDPP4-KI) mouse model where mice were challenged post-vaccination with a lethal or non-lethal dose of MERS-CoV-MA. Results: Vaccination with UNICOR-v induced high IgG titers in both mice and rabbits and cellular secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Vaccination with UNICOR-v, or passive serum transfer, significantly reduced viral lung titers 4 days post-infection compared to placebo. Vaccination induced lower immune cell infiltration in the alveolar space and increased repair of the cells lining the major airways in vaccinated mice, translating to increased survival rate compared to placebo. Conclusions: These data demonstrate the ability of conserved T-cell epitopes to protect against MERS-CoV infection, supporting further characterization of the breadth of protection of UNICOR-v against other coronaviruses that affect humans and livestock, following a One Health approach to control this highly zoonotic family of viruses.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines14040288","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T12:58:59Z","timestamp":1774357139000},"page":"288","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["UNICOR-v, a Pan-Coronavirus Subunit Vaccine, Demonstrates Immunogenicity and Efficacy Against MERS-CoV Infection"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5154-5786","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Megan E.","family":"Cole","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"ConserV Bioscience Limited, Heyford Park Innovation Centre, Bicester, Oxfordshire OX25 5HD, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Si\u00e2n","family":"Jossi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ConserV Bioscience Limited, Heyford Park Innovation Centre, Bicester, Oxfordshire OX25 5HD, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Carly","family":"Dillen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Pathogen Research, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-1451-000X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rachel","family":"Fanaroff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0107-0775","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matthew","family":"Frieman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Pathogen Research, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7099-5002","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Olga","family":"Pleguezuelos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ConserV Bioscience Limited, Heyford Park Innovation Centre, Bicester, Oxfordshire OX25 5HD, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-018-0118-9","article-title":"Origin and Evolution of Pathogenic Coronaviruses","volume":"17","author":"Cui","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"001843","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.001843","article-title":"ICTV Virus Taxonomy Profile: Coronaviridae 2023: This Article Is Part of the ICTV Virus Taxonomy Profiles Collection","volume":"104","author":"Woo","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Payne, S. (2017). Family Coronaviridae. Viruses, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-803109-4.00017-9"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2022.105246","article-title":"Human Coronaviruses: Origin, Host and Receptor","volume":"155","author":"Tang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyaa033","article-title":"The SARS, MERS, and Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) Epidemics, the Newest and Biggest Global Health Threats: What Lessons Have We Learned?","volume":"49","author":"Peeri","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"e10","article-title":"Social Consequences of the COVID-19 Pandemic. A Systematic Review","volume":"40","author":"Hosseinzadeh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Investig. Educ. Enferm."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsu.2020.04.018","article-title":"The Socio-Economic Implications of the Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19): A Review","volume":"78","author":"Nicola","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106551","DOI":"10.1016\/j.econmod.2023.106551","article-title":"The Global Economic Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic","volume":"129","author":"McKibbin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Econ. Model."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Office for National Statistics (2026, February 03). Coronavirus and the Social Impacts on Great Britain. Statistical Bulletin, Available online: https:\/\/www.ons.gov.uk\/peoplepopulationandcommunity\/wellbeing\/bulletins\/publicopinionsandsocialtrendsgreatbritain\/30marchto24april2022."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6588","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-41879-2","article-title":"Long-Term Health Impacts of COVID-19 among 242,712 Adults in England","volume":"14","author":"Atchison","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Afrashtehfar, K.I., Jurado, C.A., Al-Sammarraie, A., and Saeed, M.H. (2023). Consequences of COVID-19, and Its Variants: Understanding the Physical, Oral, and Psychological Impact. IJERPH, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20043099"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2016.01.004","article-title":"Cross Host Transmission in the Emergence of MERS Coronavirus","volume":"16","author":"Reusken","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12401","article-title":"Dromedary Camels and the Transmission of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV)","volume":"64","author":"Hemida","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2007.140500","article-title":"Stability of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus in Milk","volume":"20","author":"Bushmaker","year":"2014","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s10393-006-0076-y","article-title":"Wildlife Trade and the Emergence of Infectious Diseases","volume":"4","author":"Swift","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ecohealth"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70190","DOI":"10.1111\/1751-7915.70190","article-title":"From Bat to Worse: The Pivotal Role of Bats for Viral Zoonosis","volume":"18","year":"2025","journal-title":"Microb. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00017-06","article-title":"Bats: Important Reservoir Hosts of Emerging Viruses","volume":"19","author":"Calisher","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1080\/01652176.2022.2079756","article-title":"Swine Coronaviruses (SCoVs) and Their Emerging Threats to Swine Population, Inter-Species Transmission, Exploring the Susceptibility of Pigs for SARS-CoV-2 and Zoonotic Concerns","volume":"42","author":"Thakor","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. Q."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvfa.2010.04.005","article-title":"Bovine Respiratory Coronavirus","volume":"26","author":"Saif","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Food Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1002\/vms3.359","article-title":"Coronaviruses in Farm Animals: Epidemiology and Public Health Implications","volume":"7","author":"Benzarti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"001828","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.001828","article-title":"Infectious Bronchitis Virus: An Overview of the \u201cChicken Coronavirus\u201d","volume":"73","author":"Falchieri","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eyzaguirre, I.A.L., de Sousa, E.L., de Martins, Y.J., Fernandes, M.E.B., and Oliveira-Filho, A.B. (2025). The Effects of Climate Change on Health: A Systematic Review from a One Health Perspective. Climate, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cli13100204"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"WHO (2025, December 04). EMRO\u2014MERS and COVID-19 Response: Leveraging the \u201cOne Health\u201d Approach to Combat Public Health Threats. Available online: https:\/\/www.emro.who.int\/pandemic-epidemic-diseases\/news\/mers-and-covid-19-response-leveraging-the-one-health-approach-to-combat-public-health-threats.html."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"King, B., Adepoju, O.E., Woodard, L., Oluyomi, A.O., Zhang, X., Amos, C.I., and Badr, H. (2023). The Effects of COVID-19 Lockdown on Social Connectedness and Psychological Distress in U.S. Adults with Chronic Diseases. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20136218"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, J., Sabet-Azad, R., Patel, D., Malin, G., Askary, S.H., and S\u00e4rnef\u00e4lt, A. (2025). Fast-Tracking Vaccine Manufacturing: CEPI\u2019s Rapid Response Framework for the 100 Days Mission. Vaccines, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines13080849"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2026, January 07). CEPI 2.0 and the 100 Days Mission. Available online: https:\/\/cepi.net\/100-days-mission."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1764","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(24)00286-9","article-title":"Impact of the 100 Days Mission for Vaccines on COVID-19: A Mathematical Modelling Study","volume":"12","author":"Barnsley","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102006","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matt.2025.102006","article-title":"Sustained Exposure to Multivalent Antigen-Decorated Nanoparticles Generates Broad Anti-Coronavirus Responses","volume":"8","author":"Baillet","year":"2025","journal-title":"Matter"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1038\/s41565-022-01129-w","article-title":"Characterization of Nanoparticles-Based Vaccines for COVID-19","volume":"17","author":"Guerrini","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1216","DOI":"10.1038\/s41565-024-01655-9","article-title":"Proactive Vaccination Using Multiviral Quartet Nanocages to Elicit Broad Anti-Coronavirus Responses","volume":"19","author":"Hills","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100634","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xcrm.2022.100634","article-title":"Variant-Specific Vaccination Induces Systems Immune Responses and Potent in Vivo Protection against SARS-CoV-2","volume":"3","author":"Peng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Rep. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0037624","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.00376-24","article-title":"Pan-Beta-Coronavirus Subunit Vaccine Prevents SARS-CoV-2 Omicron, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV Challenge","volume":"98","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2527438","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2025.2527438","article-title":"A Pan-Beta-Coronavirus Vaccine Bearing Conserved and Asymptomatic B- and T-Cell Epitopes Protects against Highly Pathogenic Delta and Highly Transmissible Omicron SARS-CoV-2 Variants","volume":"21","author":"Vahed","year":"2025","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccines Immunother."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2024.10.016","article-title":"A Trivalent Mucosal Vaccine Encoding Phylogenetically Inferred Ancestral RBD Sequences Confers Pan-Sarbecovirus Protection in Mice","volume":"32","author":"Case","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdelaziz, M.O., Raftery, M.J., Weihs, J., Bielawski, O., Edel, R., K\u00f6ppke, J., Vladimirova, D., Adler, J.M., Firsching, T., and Vo\u00df, A. (2023). Early Protective Effect of a (\u201cPan\u201d) Coronavirus Vaccine (PanCoVac) in Roborovski Dwarf Hamsters after Single-Low Dose Intranasal Administration. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1166765"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1038\/msb.2011.75","article-title":"Fast, Scalable Generation of High-Quality Protein Multiple Sequence Alignments Using Clustal Omega","volume":"7","author":"Sievers","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Syst. Biol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-2836(05)80360-2","article-title":"Basic Local Alignment Search Tool","volume":"215","author":"Altschul","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"E3119","article-title":"Mouse-Adapted MERS Coronavirus Causes Lethal Lung Disease in Human DPP4 Knockin Mice","volume":"114","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"N\u00e6ss, L.M., Vanderven, H., Bryant-Bratlie, D., Laake, I., Pleguezuelos, O., and Oftung, F. (2025). FLU-v, a Broad-Spectrum Peptide-Based Influenza Vaccine, Induces NK Cell Activating IgG1 and IgG3 Subclass Antibodies in Humans. Vaccines, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines13111084"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-018-0094-1","article-title":"The Wide Utility of Rabbits as Models of Human Diseases","volume":"50","author":"Esteves","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1115","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)32175-5","article-title":"Canine Rabies Vaccination Reduces Child Rabies Cases in Malawi","volume":"392","author":"Zimmer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.7326\/M13-0542","article-title":"Cost-Effectiveness of Canine Vaccination to Prevent Human Rabies in Rural Tanzania","volume":"160","author":"Fitzpatrick","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105795","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2025.105795","article-title":"Early de Novo T Cell Expansion Following SARS-CoV-2 Infection Predicts Favourable Clinical and Virological Outcomes","volume":"117","author":"Fenn","year":"2025","journal-title":"eBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9318","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01049-10","article-title":"T Cell Responses Are Required for Protection from Clinical Disease and for Virus Clearance in Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-Infected Mice","volume":"84","author":"Zhao","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hay, Z.L.Z., and Slansky, J.E. (2022). Granzymes: The Molecular Executors of Immune-Mediated Cytotoxicity. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23031833"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2542466","DOI":"10.1080\/21505594.2025.2542466","article-title":"Cytotoxic Granules and Effector Molecules from Immune Cells in Tuberculosis: Mechanisms of Host Defense and Therapeutic Potential","volume":"16","author":"Qin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Virulence"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2274","article-title":"T-Cell Quality in Memory and Protection: Implications for Vaccine Design","volume":"8","author":"Seder","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2076","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.200939722","article-title":"Heterogeneity of CD4+ Memory T Cells: Functional Modules for Tailored Immunity","volume":"39","author":"Sallusto","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1607","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1117194109","article-title":"Polyfunctional Responses by Human T Cells Result from Sequential Release of Cytokines","volume":"109","author":"Han","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1152\/advan.00066.2013","article-title":"T Cell Responses: Naive to Memory and Everything in Between","volume":"37","author":"Pennock","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Physiol. Educ."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vincken, R., Armend\u00e1riz-Mart\u00ednez, U., and Ruiz-S\u00e1enz, A. (2025). ADCC: The Rock Band Led by Therapeutic Antibodies, Tumor, and Immune Cells. Front. Immunol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1548292"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-024-02287-0","article-title":"Unraveling the Dynamic Mechanisms of Natural Killer Cells in Viral Infections: Insights and Implications","volume":"21","author":"Letafati","year":"2024","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3982","DOI":"10.1111\/febs.16073","article-title":"Natural Killer Cell Effector Functions in Antiviral Defense","volume":"289","author":"Piersma","year":"2022","journal-title":"FEBS J."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mellors, J., Tipton, T., Longet, S., and Carroll, M. (2020). Viral Evasion of the Complement System and Its Importance for Vaccines and Therapeutics. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01450"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3020","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-14-3017","article-title":"Novel Cell-Penetrating Peptide-Based Vaccine Induces Robust CD4+ and CD8+ T Cell\u2013Mediated Antitumor Immunity","volume":"75","author":"Derouazi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat4822","article-title":"Designer Vaccine Nanodiscs for Personalized Cancer Immunotherapy","volume":"16","author":"Kuai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2018.1527496","article-title":"The Effect of Antigen Dose on T Cell-Targeting Vaccine Outcome","volume":"15","author":"Billeskov","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccin. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8623","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0809818106","article-title":"High Antigen Levels Are the Cause of T Cell Exhaustion during Chronic Viral Infection","volume":"106","author":"Mueller","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2285","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201242852","article-title":"T Cell Exhaustion Due to Persistent Antigen: Quantity Not Quality?","volume":"42","author":"Zuniga","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3494","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1600965","article-title":"Low Antigen Dose in Adjuvant-Based Vaccination Selectively Induces CD4 T Cells with Enhanced Functional Avidity and Protective Efficacy","volume":"198","author":"Billeskov","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4102","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.93.9.4102","article-title":"Selective Expansion of High- or Low-Avidity Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes and Efficacy for Adoptive Immunotherapy","volume":"93","author":"Leggatt","year":"1996","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.4314\/ovj.v10i2.6","article-title":"Susceptibility to SARS, MERS, and COVID-19 from Animal Health Perspective","volume":"10","author":"Gautam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Open Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yong, C.Y., Ong, H.K., Yeap, S.K., Ho, K.L., and Tan, W.S. (2019). Recent Advances in the Vaccine Development Against Middle East Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus. Front. Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.01781"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.27337","article-title":"Genetic Drift in the Genome of SARS COV-2 and Its Global Health Concern","volume":"94","author":"Bano","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-022-01143-7","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Is an Immune Escape Variant with an Altered Cell Entry Pathway","volume":"7","author":"Willett","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e69317","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.69317","article-title":"Reduced Antibody Cross-Reactivity Following Infection with B.1.1.7 than with Parental SARS-CoV-2 Strains","volume":"10","author":"Faulkner","year":"2021","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oftung, F., N\u00e6ss, L.M., Laake, I., Stoloff, G., and Pleguezuelos, O. (2022). FLU-v, a Broad-Spectrum Influenza Vaccine, Induces Cross-Reactive Cellular Immune Responses in Humans Measured by Dual IFN-\u03b3 and Granzyme B ELISpot Assay. Vaccines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines10091528"}],"container-title":["Vaccines"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-393X\/14\/4\/288\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T05:18:41Z","timestamp":1774502321000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-393X\/14\/4\/288"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]]},"references-count":67,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["vaccines14040288"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/vaccines14040288","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-393X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-393X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]]}}}