{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T15:28:53Z","timestamp":1774970933018,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774915200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000199","name":"University of Maine: USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture\n              https:\/\/ror.org\/05qx3fv49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2020-06392"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020-06392"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000199","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Disease outbreaks remain a major constraint on aquaculture production, making vaccination essential for disease management in farmed fish. However, injectable oil-adjuvanted vaccines can be costly and may induce adverse inflammatory reactions and welfare concerns, motivating investigations into alternative injectable adjuvant materials. Methods: We conducted an in vivo safety evaluation of shear-thinning, amidated TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofiber (TO-CNF) hydrogels formulated with an inactivated Vibrio anguillarum bacterin. Formulations were administered intraperitoneally to Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) using a common garden design with cohabitated treatment groups across triplicate tanks. Fish were monitored and sampled at pre-injection baseline and at 300-, and 600-degree days post-injection. Safety endpoints included mortality, macroscopic and histopathological outcomes, and growth evaluated relative to sham controls, unmodified TO-CNF, and a commercial oil-adjuvanted vaccine. Results: Amidated TO-CNF formulations were associated with increased mortality (up to 16\u201318% in higher reagent-loading groups) compared to commercial oil-adjuvanted vaccine, material, and sham controls. Affected fish exhibited adverse outcomes, including adhesions, proliferative lesions, ascites, edema, hemorrhage, and secondary opportunistic infections. In contrast, controls showed minimal mortality and pathology. Growth and immune response endpoints were variable and did not demonstrate consistent treatment-associated effects. Physicochemical analyses indicated differences in formulation stability and qualitative compositional differences across modification levels, but these were not quantified nor linked to specific causal mechanisms in this study. Conclusions: The amidated TO-CNF formulations tested here were associated with formulation-dependent safety risks under the conditions evaluated and are not yet suitable as injectable vaccine adjuvants in Atlantic salmon. These findings define important safety constraints for this material class and highlight the need for improved modification and purification strategies. More broadly, this work underscores the importance of establishing in vivo safety boundaries prior to efficacy optimization for emerging biomaterial-based vaccine adjuvants.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines14040313","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T13:23:17Z","timestamp":1774963397000},"page":"313","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["In Vivo Safety Characterization of Injectable Amidated TEMPO-Oxidized Cellulose Nanofiber Hydrogel Vaccine Formulations in Farmed Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar L.)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5743-9725","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sarah M.","family":"Turner","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cooperative Extension and Aquaculture Research Institute, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Mason","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jacob A.","family":"Holbrook","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jeongwhui","family":"Hong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Aquaculture, Chonnam National University, Yeosu 59626, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5169-6704","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Inga F.","family":"Sidor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"New Hampshire Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Deborah A.","family":"Bouchard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cooperative Extension and Aquaculture Research Institute, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"FAO (2022). 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