{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T18:42:13Z","timestamp":1785436933421,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,4]],"date-time":"2026-04-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775260800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002855","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology of the People\u2019s Republic of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2022YFC2104805"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YFC2104805"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002855","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["2022YFC2104805"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YFC2104805"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/027s68j25","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Rabies is a highly fatal zoonotic disease that causes approximately 59,000 human deaths worldwide each year. Current inactivated rabies vaccines require multiple doses and are associated with high costs. The full-length rabies virus glycoprotein (RVG), a membrane protein, exhibits substantial instability in its trimeric structure during recombinant expression. This instability makes it difficult to obtain high-purity, correctly folded antigens. Objectives: This study focuses on the preparation of a full-length recombinant RVG subunit vaccine candidate expressed in a glycoengineered Pichia pastoris system with mammalian-like glycosylation. Methods: The full-length RVG gene (including the transmembrane domain and cytoplasmic tail) from the Challenge Virus Standard-11 (CVS-11) strain was codon-optimized and inserted into the pPICZ\u03b1A vector to construct the recombinant expression plasmid pPICZ\u03b1A-RVG. The plasmid was transformed into glycoengineered Pichia pastoris X33-7 (low-mannose type) by electroporation for inducible expression. The target protein was purified by nickel affinity chromatography, anion-exchange chromatography, and Superdex-200 size-exclusion chromatography. The structural characteristics of the purified protein were analyzed by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The purified antigen was formulated with the adjuvants AS03 or MF59. BALB\/c mice (n = 5 per group) were immunized intramuscularly following a four-dose schedule (days 0, 7, 14, and 28). Antigen-specific IgG antibody titers were measured by ELISA, and neutralizing antibody titers were determined using the rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test (RFFIT). Results: Glycoengineered Pichia pastoris yeast strains expressing wild-type RVG (RVG-WT) or a mutant variant (RVG-M6: R84S, R199S, H270P, R279S, K300S, and R463S) were successfully constructed. The purified RVG antigen formed nanoparticles with an average particle size of approximately 75 nm. Immunized mice generated robust RVG-specific IgG responses, with titers reaching approximately 6.31 \u00d7 105 for RVG-WT after the fourth immunization, compared to 3.16 \u00d7 103 for RVG-M6 and 5.62 \u00d7 103 for the RVG-WT-PEG control. Two weeks after the fourth immunization, RVG-WT formulated with AS03 or MF59 induced significant neutralizing antibody responses compared with the control group (p &lt; 0.0001 and p &lt; 0.01, respectively). The neutralizing antibody titers reached 1:79.43 in the AS03 group and 1:33.11 in the MF59 group, whereas the WT-PEG + AS03 control group showed a low titer of 1:3.72. In contrast, RVG-M6 formulated with MF59 failed to induce detectable neutralizing antibodies (1:3.02). Furthermore, RVG-WT + AS03 induced significantly higher neutralizing antibody responses than the WT-PEG + AS03 control group (p &lt; 0.0001), and a significant difference was also observed between the RVG-WT + MF59 and RVG-M6 + MF59 groups (p &lt; 0.01). Conclusions: The glycoengineered Pichia pastoris expression system successfully produced uniform full-length rabies virus glycoprotein nanoparticles with high purity. When formulated with the AS03 adjuvant, RVG-WT induced high-titer neutralizing antibodies in mice, suggesting a promising strategy for the development of recombinant subunit vaccines against rabies. However, this study is limited by the absence of challenge studies and validation in target animal species, which will be further investigated in future work.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines14040322","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]],"date-time":"2026-04-06T02:06:21Z","timestamp":1775441181000},"page":"322","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A Rabies Virus Glycoprotein Subunit Vaccine Produced in Pichia pastoris Induces Neutralizing Antibodies in Mice"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Ye","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Life Sciences and Medical Enginering, Anhui University, Hefei 230601, China"},{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Advanced Biotechnology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing 100071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ruo","family":"Mo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun 130000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhuoran","family":"Hou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Advanced Biotechnology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing 100071, China"},{"name":"Tianjin Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Breeding and Healthy Husbandry, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Tianjin Agricultural University, Tianjin 300392, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Han","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Advanced Biotechnology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing 100071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peng","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Advanced Biotechnology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing 100071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ruixi","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Advanced Biotechnology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing 100071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tiantian","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Advanced Biotechnology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing 100071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Advanced Biotechnology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing 100071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xuchen","family":"Hou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Advanced Biotechnology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing 100071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yongkun","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun 130000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jun","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Advanced Biotechnology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing 100071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6655-1866","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bo","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Advanced Biotechnology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing 100071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smekenov, I., Bayandy, G., Alybayev, S., Baltakhozha, N., Batanova, Z., Akhmetsadykov, N., and Bissenbaev, A. 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