{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T13:15:44Z","timestamp":1785417344320,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776297600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007613","name":"Majmaah University","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["R-2026-148"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R-2026-148"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007613","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["R-2026-148"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R-2026-148"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01mcrnj60","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Respiratory infections remain a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, highlighting the urgent need to better understand host defense mechanisms in the respiratory tract. Recent advances in sequencing technologies have challenged the traditional view of the lungs as sterile organs and revealed the presence of a distinct, low-biomass microbial community known as the lung microbiota. These microbial populations interact closely with airway epithelial cells and immune cells to maintain respiratory homeostasis and regulate host immune responses. In healthy lungs, microbial communities dominated by Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Proteobacteria contribute to immune regulation through interactions with innate and adaptive immune pathways. Microbiota-derived signals are detected by pattern recognition receptors, activating signaling pathways that regulate cytokine production, immune cell recruitment, and T-cell differentiation. In the respiratory mucosa, microbial stimulation can also induce epithelial and antigen-presenting cells to produce B-cell activating factor (BAFF) and a proliferation-inducing ligand (APRIL), which promote immunoglobulin A (IgA) class-switch recombination and support mucosal antibody responses. During pulmonary infection, disruption of microbial communities can lead to dysbiosis that amplifies inflammatory responses, impairs epithelial barrier integrity, and increases susceptibility to secondary bacterial infections. In addition to local microbial interactions, the gut\u2013lung axis represents a key communication pathway linking intestinal microbiota with respiratory immunity through microbial metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and immune signaling networks. This review summarizes current insights into microbiota\u2013immune crosstalk in the lung during pulmonary infection and discusses how these interactions may inform mucosal vaccine development. A deeper understanding of host\u2013microbiota interactions may enable microbiome-informed vaccines and therapeutic strategies to improve protection against respiratory diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines14040355","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T14:05:36Z","timestamp":1776348336000},"page":"355","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["The Role of Lung Microbiota in Shaping Host Immunity and Mucosal Vaccine Responses"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6947-7582","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wael","family":"Alturaiki","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Majmaah University, Majmaah 11952, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-023-01722-y","article-title":"Lung microbiome: New insights into the pathogenesis of respiratory diseases","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. 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