{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T11:28:10Z","timestamp":1776425290444,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776384000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Patients with kidney failure requiring dialysis experience a high burden of vaccine-preventable diseases, and vaccine hypo-responsiveness is a key contributor. Uraemic toxins and gut dysbiosis are potential causes of hypo-responsiveness. Aim: This study aimed to determine whether uraemic toxin concentrations or gut dysbiosis are associated with vaccine response in haemodialysis patients. Methods: This was a single centre, observational cohort study of maintenance dialysis patients receiving a conventional 2-dose primary COVID-19 vaccination course. Demographic, clinical and vaccination data were collected from the eMR. Vaccine response (Elecsys Anti-SARS-CoV-2 immunoassay), serum uraemic toxin concentrations (indoxyl sulphate, p-cresyl sulphate, and trimethylamine N-oxide by liquid chromatography), and stool microbiome (16S rRNA gene sequencing) were measured 8 weeks after the second dose of vaccine. Results: Forty participants (43% female, mean age 66 years; 59% Caucasian) were included, 70% of whom were classified as a vaccine responder. Antibiotic exposure, prednisolone use and lymphopenia were significantly associated with hypo-responsiveness. Microbiome profiling identified differences in beta diversity between responders and non-responders, positively correlated with short-chain fatty acid producers (Parabacteriodes) and negatively with pathobionts (Escherichia\/Shigella). Differential abundance analysis identified lower levels of Tyzzerella, Gemmiger, and Hungatella and higher levels of Turicibacter in vaccine responders. Total uraemic toxin burden and individual toxin concentrations did not differ between responders and hypo-responders (all p &gt; 0.05). Stratification by low versus high\/very high toxin burden groupings was not associated with response (p &gt; 0.99). Conclusions: Differences in gut microbial composition were observed between vaccine responder groups, while uraemic toxin concentrations were not associated with vaccine responsiveness. These findings suggest gut microbiota composition may contribute to vaccine hypo-responsiveness in individuals receiving dialysis and warrant further investigation in larger mechanistic studies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines14040358","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T10:11:04Z","timestamp":1776420664000},"page":"358","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Role of the Gut Microbiota and Uraemic Toxins in Vaccine Responsiveness Among People Receiving Maintenance Haemodialysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-4071-7475","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erin","family":"Vaughan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Renal Medicine, Kidney Centre, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alexander","family":"Gilbert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Renal Medicine, Kidney Centre, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bree","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8559-5872","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Griffith B.","family":"Perkins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central and Northern Adelaide Renal and Transplantation Service, Royal Adelaide Hospital, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"},{"name":"School of Medicine, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Huiling","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0527-898X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Steve","family":"Chadban","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Renal Medicine, Kidney Centre, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kwiatkowska, E., Safranow, K., Wojciechowska-Koszko, I., Roszkowska, P., Dziedziejko, V., My\u015blak, M., R\u00f3\u017ca\u0144ski, J., Ciechanowski, K., Stomp\u00f3r, T., and Przybyci\u0144ski, J. 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