{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,2]],"date-time":"2026-05-02T14:03:59Z","timestamp":1777730639357,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777420800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Currently marketed hepatitis B vaccines are primarily recombinant protein vaccines. However, their antigen immunogenicity is relatively weak, requiring combination with effective adjuvants to enhance the immune response. The development of novel, highly effective adjuvants is a key strategy for optimizing vaccine performance. Polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (PolyI:C), a synthetic double-stranded RNA analog, activates TLR3\/RLR pathways to enhance T-cell priming and cellular immunity. However, its utility as a sole adjuvant is limited by rapid nuclease degradation and poor cytosolic delivery. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), a mature delivery platform, enable high encapsulation efficiency, efficient cellular uptake, and endosomal escape. Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the adjuvant effect of LNP-encapsulated PolyI:C (LNP-PolyI:C) on the immunogenicity of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) in vivo. Methods: The colloidal stability of LNP-PolyI:C stored at 2\u20138 \u00b0C for 9 months was monitored using dynamic light scattering (DLS) on a Zetasizer Lab instrument. Serum levels of HBsAg-specific IgG, IgG1, and IgG2a antibodies in immunized Kunming mice were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The secretion of HBsAg-specific cytokines by splenocytes was analyzed using flow cytometry and enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISpot) assay. Results: The results demonstrated that the LNP-encapsulated PolyI:C adjuvant significantly increased the secretion of HBsAg-specific IFN-\u03b3, IL-2, and TNF-\u03b1 by splenocytes, indicating a Th1-biased and cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL)-mediated cellular immune response. In addition, this formulation markedly elevated serum titers of HBsAg-specific IgG, IgG1, and IgG2a. Conclusions: These findings underscore the advantages of the LNP-PolyI:C adjuvant in enhancing both humoral and cellular immunity, demonstrating its considerable potential as a novel adjuvant.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines14050397","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T10:34:42Z","timestamp":1777458882000},"page":"397","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Lipid Nanoparticle-Encapsulated PolyI:C as an Adjuvant Enhances Both Humoral and Cellular Immune Responses to the Hepatitis B Vaccine"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Zhixian","family":"Zhao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"LakeShore Biopharma (Beijing) Co., Ltd., Beijing 100176, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bin","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Liaoning Yisheng Biopharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Shenyang 110136, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hao","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LakeShore Biopharma (Beijing) Co., Ltd., Beijing 100176, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Qiang","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Liaoning Yisheng Biopharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Shenyang 110136, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yunfei","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Liaoning Yisheng Biopharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Shenyang 110136, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yuan","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LakeShore Biopharma (Beijing) Co., Ltd., Beijing 100176, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Debbag, R., \u00c1vila-Ag\u00fcero, M.L., Brea, J., Espinal, C., Romero-Feregrino, R., Torres, J.R., V\u00e1zquez, H., Cuadros, R., Lazo-P\u00e1ez, G., and Schilling, A. 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