{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T15:40:55Z","timestamp":1785426055520,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":217,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778112000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["8227080571"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["8227080571"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["8227080571"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["8227080571"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The goal of vaccination is to induce long-term immune memory. Traditionally, immune memory has been thought to be mediated by memory T cells and B cells. In recent years, trained immunity mediated by the innate immune cells (e.g., NK cells, neutrophils, and monocytes\/macrophages) has garnered increasing attention. Trained immunity exhibits an antigen-nonspecific immune memory that provides broader protection against heterologous infections. This article reviews the mechanisms involved in the development of trained immunity, memory T cells, and B cells with a particular focus on metabolic reprogramming and epigenetic modifications. Moreover, the effects of aging on immune memory and the factors involved in regulating the vaccine-induced immune memory in older people are discussed. By understanding immune memory and its regulatory mechanisms, we can better design vaccines and optimize vaccination strategies to induce long-lasting immune memory.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines14050420","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T09:03:37Z","timestamp":1778144617000},"page":"420","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Perspectives on the Development of Immune Memory Associated with Vaccination"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Pu","family":"He","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Life Science, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Animal Disease Control and Prevention and Lanzhou Center for Tuberculosis Research, Institute of Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuhe","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Animal Disease Control and Prevention and Lanzhou Center for Tuberculosis Research, Institute of Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yu","family":"Feng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Animal Disease Control and Prevention and Lanzhou Center for Tuberculosis Research, Institute of Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ting","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Animal Disease Control and Prevention and Lanzhou Center for Tuberculosis Research, Institute of Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fei","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Animal Disease Control and Prevention and Lanzhou Center for Tuberculosis Research, Institute of Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9878-8179","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Youjun","family":"Mi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Animal Disease Control and Prevention and Lanzhou Center for Tuberculosis Research, Institute of Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2142-8423","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wenhua","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Life Science, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8422-4594","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bingdong","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Animal Disease Control and Prevention and Lanzhou Center for Tuberculosis Research, Institute of Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China"},{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1251086","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1251086","article-title":"Epigenetic programming of monocyte-to-macrophage differentiation and trained innate immunity","volume":"345","author":"Saeed","year":"2014","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-00479-7","article-title":"A guide to vaccinology: From basic principles to new developments","volume":"21","author":"Pollard","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. 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