{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T23:51:35Z","timestamp":1789429895259,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]],"date-time":"2026-05-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779926400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Government Pharmaceutical Organization (GPO), Thailand"},{"name":"Program Management Unit for Competitiveness (PMUC), Thailand"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: HXP-GPOVac is a locally produced, inactivated Newcastle disease virus-based (NDV-HXP-S) COVID-19 vaccine manufactured in Thailand. This phase II trial compared its safety and immunogenicity with the mRNA vaccine BNT162b2 in adults aged 18\u201375 years. Methods: In this randomized, double-blind, active-controlled trial registered with the Thai Clinical Trials Registry (TCTR20220819003), 300 participants were assigned 3:1 to receive HXP-GPOVac or BNT162b2 on Days 1 and 29. Solicited adverse events (AEs) were recorded for 7 days after each dose, AEs were summarized through 28 days after each dose, and serious adverse events (SAEs), medically attended AEs (MAAEs), and adverse events of special interest (AESIs) were collected through Day 197. Humoral immunogenicity was assessed by pseudovirus 50% neutralization titers (NT50) and anti-spike IgG concentrations at baseline, Day 29, Day 43, and Day 197. Seroconversion was defined as a \u22654-fold increase from baseline. A predefined subset underwent interferon-\u03b3 (IFN-\u03b3) and interleukin-5 (IL-5) ELISpot assays to assess cell-mediated immune responses. The primary immunogenicity analysis assessed non-inferiority of HXP-GPOVac compared with BNT162b2 based on the NT50 geometric mean titer ratio, with a prespecified non-inferiority margin of 0.5. Results: Solicited AEs were predominantly mild and occurred more frequently after the first dose in both groups; one or more solicited local or systemic AEs were reported by 23.7% (95% CI: 18.3\u201329.8) of HXP-GPOVac recipients and 44.7% (95% CI: 33.3\u201356.6) of BNT162b2 recipients after the first dose. AEs through 28 days after vaccination and SAEs were uncommon; MAAEs occurred in 17.0% of HXP-GPOVac recipients and 22.4% of BNT162b2 recipients, and none were considered related to vaccination. In the HXP-GPOVac group, NT50 geometric mean titers increased from 5.6 at baseline to 65.5 at Day 29 and 505 at Day 43, declining to 63.6 at Day 197. Anti-spike IgG geometric mean concentrations rose from 7.5 BAU\/mL at baseline to 102.7 BAU\/mL at Day 29 and 514.6 BAU\/mL at Day 43, decreasing to 61.0 BAU\/mL at Day 197. BNT162b2 induced higher antibody levels at all time points. The NT50 GMT ratio (HXP-GPOVac\/BNT162b2) at Day 43 was 0.51 (95% CI: 0.39\u20130.67); the lower bound did not exceed the prespecified non-inferiority margin of 0.5, and non-inferiority was not established. Seroconversion rates at Day 43 were 97.6% for HXP-GPOVac and 97.1% for BNT162b2 (neutralizing antibody) and 98.6% and 97.1%, respectively (anti-spike IgG). ELISpot analyses demonstrated increased IFN-\u03b3 responses after the second dose without evidence of Th2-dominant skewing. Conclusions: HXP-GPOVac was well tolerated and induced substantial humoral and cellular immune responses, with high seroconversion rates and balanced T-cell polarization. Although absolute antibody levels were lower than those induced by BNT162b2 and the prespecified non-inferiority criterion was not met, these findings support continued evaluation of the inactivated NDV-HXP-S vaccine platform.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines14060481","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T11:25:31Z","timestamp":1780399531000},"page":"481","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Safety and Immunogenicity of a Locally Produced Inactivated NDV-HXP-S COVID-19 Vaccine (HXP-GPOVac) Compared with BNT162b2: A Phase II Randomized, Controlled, Double-Blind Noninferiority Trial in Thai Adults"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8728-5405","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kriengkrai","family":"Prasert","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Nakhon Phanom Provincial Hospital, Nakhon Phanom 48000, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5247-0221","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sutthichai","family":"Nakphook","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nakhon Phanom Provincial Hospital, Nakhon Phanom 48000, Thailand"},{"name":"Faculty of Public Health, Chalermphrakiat Sakon Nakhon Campus, Kasetsart University, Sakon Nakhon 47000, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiraphut","family":"Kittiwatanachod","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nakhon Phanom Provincial Hospital, Nakhon Phanom 48000, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kanlaya","family":"Sornwong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nakhon Phanom Provincial Hospital, Nakhon Phanom 48000, Thailand"},{"name":"Faculty of Public Health, Chalermphrakiat Sakon Nakhon Campus, Kasetsart University, Sakon Nakhon 47000, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Suriya","family":"Naosri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nakhon Phanom Provincial Hospital, Nakhon Phanom 48000, Thailand"},{"name":"Faculty of Public Health, Chalermphrakiat Sakon Nakhon Campus, Kasetsart University, Sakon Nakhon 47000, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Passakorn","family":"Ongarj","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Public Health, Chalermphrakiat Sakon Nakhon Campus, Kasetsart University, Sakon Nakhon 47000, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isariya","family":"Techatanawat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Government Pharmaceutical Organization (GPO), Bangkok 10400, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Piengthong","family":"Narakorn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Government Pharmaceutical Organization (GPO), Bangkok 10400, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1058-5247","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Somchaiya","family":"Surichan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Government Pharmaceutical Organization (GPO), Bangkok 10400, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jorge","family":"Flores","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PATH, Seattle, WA 98103, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2517-8900","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laina D.","family":"Mercer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PATH, Seattle, WA 98103, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9801-2012","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christina S.","family":"Polyak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PATH, Seattle, WA 98103, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1753-7248","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bruce L.","family":"Innis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PATH, Seattle, WA 98103, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rama","family":"Raghunandan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PATH, Seattle, WA 98103, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chakrarat","family":"Pittayawonganon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Office of the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi 11000, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sopon","family":"Iamsirithaworn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Office of the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi 11000, 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