{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T10:30:14Z","timestamp":1785407414190,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,30]],"date-time":"2026-05-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780099200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China, International Cooperative Research Project","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2023YFVA1002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFVA1002"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["2023YFVA1002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFVA1002"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Vaccine clinical trials face high costs, long timelines, and variable progression rates, yet systematic evidence linking trial design features to progression outcomes remains limited. This study aimed to identify trial design features associated with vaccine trial progression and to explore robust design configurations using machine learning approaches. Methods: We analyzed 1618 vaccine trials registered from 2012 to 2022. Progression was defined as phase advancement (phase I\/II) or regulatory authorization (phase III). Logistic regression assessed associations with progression. Random forest classifiers with cross-validation were used to estimate predicted progression probabilities based on combinations of design features. Monte Carlo simulations compared model-identified robust configurations with randomly generated configurations. Results: Among 1618 trials, 579 achieved phase progressions, corresponding to an overall observed progression rate of 35.8%. Larger sample size, preventive vaccine purpose, COVID-19 indication, and enrollment across all age groups were consistently associated with higher observed odds of progression in both univariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses. In machine learning analyses, the pooled mean predicted progression probability of model-identified robust configurations was 48.93%, compared with 39.44% for historically observed design configurations, corresponding to a relative increase of 24.1%. Simulations further showed a lower projected cumulative development duration (106.87 vs. 128.25 months; \u221216.7%) and reduced projected cost (USD 100.67M vs. USD 108.33M; \u22127.1%) for robust configurations compared with historical strategies. Conclusions: This study provides a data-driven framework for characterizing historical vaccine trial design patterns. By integrating machine learning with observational registry data, it supports hypothesis generation and descriptive benchmarking of design features that may inform the design of future prospective or causal investigations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines14060489","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T12:45:08Z","timestamp":1780404308000},"page":"489","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Data-Driven Vaccine Clinical Trial Design Features and Associated Progress Patterns: An Analysis of 1618 Clinical Trials from 2012 to 2022"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-0093-7410","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Siyang","family":"Chan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Pharmacoeconomics and Outcomes Research, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China"},{"name":"Department of Public Affairs Management, School of International Pharmaceutical Business, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dachuang","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Pharmacoeconomics and Outcomes Research, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China"},{"name":"Department of Public Affairs Management, School of International Pharmaceutical Business, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Di","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Pharmacoeconomics and Outcomes Research, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China"},{"name":"Department of Public Affairs Management, School of International Pharmaceutical Business, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuting","family":"Xia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Pharmacoeconomics and Outcomes Research, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China"},{"name":"Department of Public Affairs Management, School of International Pharmaceutical Business, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3564-3626","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wenxi","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Pharmacoeconomics and Outcomes Research, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China"},{"name":"Department of Public Affairs Management, School of International Pharmaceutical Business, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2026, March 01). 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