{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T13:00:33Z","timestamp":1785416433090,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,30]],"date-time":"2026-05-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780099200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001411","name":"Indian Council of Medical Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["VIR\/COVID-19\/11\/2021\/ECD-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["VIR\/COVID-19\/11\/2021\/ECD-1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001411","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["VIR\/COVID-19\/11\/2021\/ECD-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["VIR\/COVID-19\/11\/2021\/ECD-1"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0492wrx28","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: The induction of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies by COVID-19 vaccination reduces morbidity and mortality, but immune responses may be compromised in people living with HIV (PLWH). The aims of the current study were to determine whether viral suppression (VS) or immune reconstitution (IR) in PLWH directly affected their ability to produce effective levels of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in mucosal secretions or blood induced by vaccination. Methods: Anti-SARS-CoV-2 spike IgG, IgA and secretory IgA (SIgA) antibodies and their avidities were measured by ELISA in HIV-negative healthy controls (HC; n = 49) and PLWH (n = 94) using stimulated oral fluid (SOF) and serum. Frequencies of CD4\/CD8 T cells and their expression of exhaustion\/senescence were determined by flow cytometry. Cytokine levels were measured by cytokine bead arrays. Results: We showed that higher HIV burden negatively impacted the levels of systemic and mucosal anti-SARS-CoV-2 spike IgG antibodies produced. This differential IgG antibody production was unaffected by IR status, antiretroviral therapy duration or T cell exhaustion\/senescence. PLWH elicited higher anti-SARS-CoV-2 spike IgA antibodies both in peripheral blood and oral mucosa and highr secretory IgA (SIgA) antibodies in the oral mucosa. PLWH with higher HIV RNA copies elicited lower IgG avidity but the IgA avidity indices remained unaffected. PLWH expressed higher levels of innate immunity cytokines in the oral mucosa, irrespective of the HIV RNA copies. Conclusions: Significantly fewer breakthrough infections in PLWH compared with HC, along with high IgA\/SIgA antibodies and increased innate immunity cytokines in the SOF, suggest a potential role for mucosal immunity in the immunopathogenesis of COVID-19.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines14060493","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T12:45:08Z","timestamp":1780404308000},"page":"493","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Mucosal Immune Responses in People Living with HIV May Confer Protection from SARS-CoV-2 Infections After COVID-19 Vaccination"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Albert","family":"Judith","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"VHS Laboratory Services, The Voluntary Health Services, Chennai 600113, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-4258-5123","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muruganantham Lillimary","family":"Eniya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"VHS Laboratory Services, The Voluntary Health Services, Chennai 600113, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Beulah","family":"Faith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases Medical Centre, The Voluntary Health Services, Chennai 600113, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-7500-4885","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Poongulali","family":"Selvamuthu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases Medical Centre, The Voluntary Health Services, Chennai 600113, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ramamurthy Silamban","family":"Yazhini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"VHS Laboratory Services, The Voluntary Health Services, Chennai 600113, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nagalingeswaran","family":"Kumarasamy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases Medical Centre, The Voluntary Health Services, Chennai 600113, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7327-6927","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephen J.","family":"Challacombe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Dentistry, Oral & Craniofacial Sciences, King\u2019s College London, London WC2R 2LS, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2790-6676","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Priya","family":"Kannian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"VHS Laboratory Services, The Voluntary Health Services, Chennai 600113, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mjafi.2021.06.034","article-title":"Vaccination status and COVID-19 related mortality: A hospital based cross sectional study","volume":"77","author":"Muthukrishnan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Med. 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