{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T00:27:30Z","timestamp":1790209650776,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":246,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780531200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100017242","name":"National Institutes for Food and Drug Control","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2025SKLDRS0351"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025SKLDRS0351"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100017242","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["2025SKLDRS0351"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025SKLDRS0351"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/041rdq190","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Therapeutic vaccines are a key strategy to achieve the goal of \u201cfunctional cure\u201d of chronic viral infections, including hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), human papillomavirus (HPV), and Epstein\u2013Barr virus (EBV). Various platforms (such as viral vectors, nucleic acid vaccines, recombinant proteins, etc.) have successfully induced strong virus-specific T-cell responses in early trials, but their clinical efficacy is still limited by the immunosuppressive environment formed by the host. The core bottlenecks are severe T-cell exhaustion, viral immune escape, and various forms of local immune tolerance. Therefore, the field is moving toward combination therapies, including reduction of viral load, targeting of immune activation, and inhibition of inhibitory signaling pathways. This article summarizes the preclinical and clinical progress of therapeutic vaccines in the past decade, analyzes the major challenges in vaccine development, and discusses the future development directions in this field.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines14060507","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T01:23:21Z","timestamp":1780622601000},"page":"507","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Therapeutic Vaccines for Chronic Viral Infections: From Immune Modulation to Clinical Translation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Zhuang","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Drug Regulatory Sciences, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 102629, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Drug Regulatory Sciences, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 102629, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yiyang","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Drug Regulatory Sciences, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 102629, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hongyu","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biopharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chenyang","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biopharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qing","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Drug Regulatory Sciences, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 102629, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-021-00639-z","article-title":"Infectious disease in an era of global change","volume":"20","author":"Baker","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3652","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2022.08.026","article-title":"Epstein-Barr virus: Biology and clinical disease","volume":"185","author":"Damania","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-023-00760-9","article-title":"Global burden of hepatitis B virus: Current status, missed opportunities and a call for action","volume":"20","author":"Hsu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(23)01381-8","article-title":"HIV epidemiology, prevention, treatment, and implementation strategies for public health","volume":"403","author":"Mody","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e15","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaf334","article-title":"State-of-the-Art Review: Hepatitis C","volume":"81","author":"Bhattacharya","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2537","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.2537","article-title":"Human papillomavirus infection: Epidemiology, biology, host interactions, cancer development, prevention, and therapeutics","volume":"34","author":"Wolf","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1054","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.14352","article-title":"The negative impact of HBV\/HCV coinfection on cirrhosis and its consequences","volume":"46","author":"Pol","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1405","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v28.i14.1405","article-title":"Viral hepatitis: Past, present, and future","volume":"28","author":"Odenwald","year":"2022","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-025-05685-x","article-title":"Targeting inflammasomes as a therapeutic potential for HIV\/AIDS","volume":"82","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-021-00949-7","article-title":"Not-so-opposite ends of the spectrum: CD8(+) T cell dysfunction across chronic infection, cancer and autoimmunity","volume":"22","author":"Collier","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-025-02539-7","article-title":"Antiviral drug discovery and development: Challenges and future directions","volume":"11","author":"Du","year":"2026","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa568","article-title":"Challenges and Promise of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Remission","volume":"223","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2022.10.008","article-title":"Current Best Practice in Hepatitis B Management and Understanding Long-term Prospects for Cure","volume":"164","author":"Yardeni","year":"2023","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-021-00617-5","article-title":"Human papillomaviruses: Diversity, infection and host interactions","volume":"20","author":"McBride","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1007\/s11427-022-2230-4","article-title":"Current progress in the development of prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines","volume":"66","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. China Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.7774\/cevr.2024.13.1.21","article-title":"Current development of therapeutic vaccines for the treatment of chronic infectious diseases","volume":"13","author":"Park","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Vaccine Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, X., and Shao, C. (2020). Radiotherapy-Mediated Immunomodulation and Anti-Tumor Abscopal Effect Combining Immune Checkpoint Blockade. Cancers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers12102762"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei, L., and Ploss, A. (2021). Mechanism of Hepatitis B Virus cccDNA Formation. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13081463"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Long, Q., Yan, R., Hu, J., Cai, D., Mitra, B., Kim, E.S., Marchetti, A., Zhang, H., Wang, S., and Liu, Y. (2017). The role of host DNA ligases in hepadnavirus covalently closed circular DNA formation. PLoS Pathog., 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1006784"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1038\/s41573-019-0037-0","article-title":"Therapeutic strategies for hepatitis B virus infection: Towards a cure","volume":"18","author":"Fanning","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Knolle, P.A., Huang, L.R., Kosinska, A., Wohlleber, D., and Protzer, U. (2021). Improving Therapeutic Vaccination against Hepatitis B-Insights from Preclinical Models of Immune Therapy against Persistent Hepatitis B Virus Infection. Vaccines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9111333"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S834","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-8278(22)01964-X","article-title":"SAT362\u2014Therapeutic vaccination with CLB-3000 in a mouse model of chronic hepatitis B induces anti-HBs responses associated with functional cure","volume":"77","author":"Renae","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., Wu, J., Meng, X., Weng, H., Li, Q., Li, L., Ma, Z., Bi, S., Han, Q., and Zhao, H. (2025). A CpG 1018S\/QS-21-Adjuvanted HBsAg Therapeutic Vaccine as a Novel Strategy Against HBV. Vaccines, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines13101014"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2022.12.013","article-title":"Activation of CD4 T cells during prime immunization determines the success of a therapeutic hepatitis B vaccine in HBV-carrier mouse models","volume":"78","author":"Su","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100885","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhepr.2023.100885","article-title":"HBV001: Phase I study evaluating the safety and immunogenicity of the therapeutic vaccine ChAdOx1-HBV","volume":"5","author":"Cargill","year":"2023","journal-title":"JHEP Rep."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-024-00813-3","article-title":"A therapeutic hepatitis B mRNA vaccine with strong immunogenicity and persistent virological suppression","volume":"9","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"npj Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Pooter, D., Van Gulck, E., Chen, A., Evans, C.F., Neefs, J.M., Horton, H., and Boden, D. (2021). A Therapeutic Hepatitis B Virus DNA Vaccine Induces Specific Immune Responses in Mice and Non-Human Primates. Vaccines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9090969"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1711","DOI":"10.1021\/acsptsci.4c00147","article-title":"Progress of Infection and Replication Systems of Hepatitis B Virus","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Pharmacol. Transl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.5005\/jp-journals-10018-1483","article-title":"The Sustainable Goal of Eliminating Hepatitis B, Functional Cure, and the Prospect of NASVAC: A Review","volume":"15","author":"Mahtab","year":"2025","journal-title":"Euroasian J. Hepatogastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2025.02.016","article-title":"The Impact of Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Reduction via Small Interfering RNA Treatment on Natural and Vaccine (BRII-179)-Induced Hepatitis B Virus-Specific Humoral and Cellular Immune Responses","volume":"169","author":"Ji","year":"2025","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Janssen Research & Development, LLC (2026, March 15). A Study of JNJ-73763989, JNJ-64300535, and Nucleos(t)Ide Analogs in Virologically Suppressed, Hepatitis B e Antigen (HBeAg)- Negative Participants with Chronic Hepatitis B Virus Infection, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT05123599?cond=NCT05123599&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Inovio Pharmaceuticals (2026, March 15). Phase I Study of INO-1800 With or Without INO-9112 + EP in Chronic Hepatitis B Subjects, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT02431312?cond=NCT02431312&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, S., Yu, S., Zhang, M., Huang, Y., Tian, B., and Lu, J. (2026). From Innate to Adaptive: Paradigm Shifts and Frontier Challenges in Next-Generation Vaccine Design. Vaccines, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines14030228"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Tasly Tianjin Biopharmaceutical Co., Ltd. (2026, March 15). Safety and Efficacy of Therapeutic Hepatitis B Adenovirus Injection (T101) in Chronic Hepatitis B Patients, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04168333?cond=NCT04168333&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Virion Therapeutics (2026, March 15). Dose-Escalation Prime\/Boost Therapeutic Vaccination Study of 2 Chimp Adenoviral Vectors in Adults with Chronic HBV on Nucleos(t)Ide Therapy, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT06070051?cond=NCT06070051&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2024.06.027","article-title":"Phase Ib\/IIa randomized study of heterologous ChAdOx1-HBV\/MVA-HBV therapeutic vaccination (VTP-300) as monotherapy and combined with low-dose nivolumab in virally-suppressed patients with CHB","volume":"81","author":"Tak","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhepr.2021.100361","article-title":"Therapeutic vaccine BRII-179 restores HBV-specific immune responses in patients with chronic HBV in a phase Ib\/IIa study","volume":"3","author":"Ma","year":"2021","journal-title":"JHEP Rep."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1762","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2020.01.032","article-title":"Knockdown of Virus Antigen Expression Increases Therapeutic Vaccine Efficacy in High-Titer Hepatitis B Virus Carrier Mice","volume":"158","author":"Michler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1320","DOI":"10.1007\/s12072-025-10907-2","article-title":"Do the therapeutic vaccines hold hope for the treatment of hepatitis B?","volume":"19","author":"Yan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Hepatol. Int."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Clinical Research Organization, Dhaka, Bangladesh (2026, March 15). NASVAC Phase-III Trial in Chronic Hepatitis B (CHB) Patients (NASVAC), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT01374308?cond=NCT01374308&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Brii Biosciences Limited (2026, March 15). Study to Investigate the Safety and Efficacy of BRII-835 and BRII-179 Combination Therapy Treating Chronic Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) Infection, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04749368?cond=NCT04749368&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Brii Biosciences Limited (2026, March 15). Study to Investigate the Efficacy and Safety of Regimens Containing BRII-179, BRII-835, and PEG-IFN\u03b1 Treating Chronic Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) Infection (ENRICH), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT06491563?cond=NCT06491563&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Brii Biosciences Limited (2026, March 15). A Study to Evaluate the Efficacy and Safety of Combination Therapy of BRII-179, BRII-835 and PEG-IFN\u03b1 in Participants with Chronic Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) Infection (ENHANCE), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT06650852?cond=NCT06650852&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Chongqing Jiachen Biotechnology Ltd. (2026, March 15). Therapeutic Hepatitis B Vaccine (Mimogen-based) Joint Entecavir in Treating Chronic Hepatitis B Patients, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT01326546?cond=NCT01326546&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"CHA Vaccine Institute Co., Ltd. (2026, March 15). A Study to Evaluate the Efficacy and Safety of Therapeutic Hepatitis B Vaccine, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04289987?cond=NCT04289987&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Barinthus Biotherapeutics (2026, March 15). Efficacy of VTP-300 in Chronic Hepatitis B Infection, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT05343481?cond=NCT05343481&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Erasmus Medical Center (2026, March 15). Evaluation of the Novel Therapeutic Hepatitis B Virus Synthetic Long Peptide Vaccination ISA104 (HEB-PEP), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT05841095?cond=NCT05841095&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Gilead Sciences (2026, March 15). Safety and Efficacy of GS-4774 in Combination with Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate (TDF) for the Treatment of Participants with Chronic Hepatitis B (CHB) and Who Are Currently Not on Treatment, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT02174276?cond=NCT02174276&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Altimmune, Inc. (2026, March 15). HepTcell Immunotherapy in Patients with Inactive Chronic Hepatitis B (CHB), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04684914?cond=NCT04684914&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"GlaxoSmithKline (2026, March 15). Safety, Efficacy, Immunogenicity Study of GSK Biologicals\u2019 HBV Viral Vector and Adjuvanted Proteins Vaccine (GSK3528869A) in Adult Patients with Chronic Hepatitis B Infection, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03866187?cond=GSK3528869A&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Michael Hoelscher (2026, March 15). TherVacB\u2014A Heterologous Protein Prime\/MVA Boost Therapeutic Hepatitis B Vaccine Candidate (TherVacB), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT06513286?cond=NCT06513286&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Transgene (2026, March 15). Safety and Tolerability of TG1050: A Dose-Finding Study, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT02428400?cond=NCT02428400&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Janssen Sciences Ireland UC (2026, March 15). A First-In-Human Study to Evaluate Safety, Tolerability, Reactogenicity, and Immunogenicity of JNJ-64300535, a DNA Vaccine, Administered by Electroporation-Mediated Intramuscular Injection, in Participants with Chronic Hepatitis B Who Are on Stable Nucleos(t)Ide Therapy and Virologically Suppressed, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03463369?cond=NCT03463369&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Genexine, Inc. (2026, March 15). Tolerability, Immunogenicity and Efficacy of HB-110 Administered by Electroporation in Chronic Hepatitis B Patients, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT01641536?cond=NCT01641536&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Barinthus Biotherapeutics (2026, March 15). First in Human Study of ChAdOx1-HBV in Healthy Participants and Participants with Chronic hepB Infection, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04297917?cond=NCT04297917&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"897","DOI":"10.1002\/med.21940","article-title":"Therapeutic potential of salicylamide derivatives for combating viral infections","volume":"43","author":"Xu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Med. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.1002\/jgh3.12319","article-title":"Combination with portosystemic shunt occlusion and antiviral therapy improves prognosis of decompensated cirrhosis","volume":"4","author":"Tamai","year":"2020","journal-title":"JGH Open"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199593","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2025.199593","article-title":"Validation of signature molecular profiles of advanced HCV liver disease in hepatocellular carcinoma patients","volume":"357","author":"Park","year":"2025","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yechezkel, I., Law, M., and Tzarum, N. (2021). From Structural Studies to HCV Vaccine Design. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13050833"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1007\/s10238-025-01811-y","article-title":"Unveiling the nexus between direct-acting antivirals in hepatitis C virus elimination and immune response","volume":"25","author":"Abdelaziz","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-024-07783-5","article-title":"The hepatitis C virus envelope protein complex is a dimer of heterodimers","volume":"633","author":"Augestad","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3980","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-39659-z","article-title":"Structure of engineered hepatitis C virus E1E2 ectodomain in complex with neutralizing antibodies","volume":"14","author":"Metcalf","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-023-00635-9","article-title":"Hepatitis C virus E1 and modified E2 delivered from an mRNA vaccine induces protective immunity","volume":"8","author":"Patra","year":"2023","journal-title":"npj Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2016.08.025","article-title":"Hepatitis C virus: Life cycle in cells, infection and host response, and analysis of molecular markers influencing the outcome of infection and response to therapy","volume":"22","author":"Dustin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2018.08.060","article-title":"Approaches, Progress, and Challenges to Hepatitis C Vaccine Development","volume":"156","author":"Bailey","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1158\/1940-6207.CAPR-22-0217","article-title":"Phase I Trial of a Therapeutic DNA Vaccine for Preventing Hepatocellular Carcinoma from Chronic Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Infection","volume":"16","author":"Jacobson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cancer Prev. Res."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1541","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.31160","article-title":"Characterizing Hepatitis C Virus-Specific CD4(+) T Cells Following Viral-Vectored Vaccination, Directly Acting Antivirals, and Spontaneous Viral Cure","volume":"72","author":"Hartnell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manickam, C., and Reeves, R.K. (2014). Modeling HCV disease in animals: Virology, immunology and pathogenesis of HCV and GBV-B infections. Front. Microbiol., 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2014.00690"},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"409","article-title":"A Review of Hepatitis B Virus and Hepatitis C Virus Immunopathogenesis","volume":"9","author":"Saraceni","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Transl. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2014.01.007","article-title":"Murine models of hepatitis C: What can we look forward to?","volume":"104","author":"Ploss","year":"2014","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duncan, J.D., Urbanowicz, R.A., Tarr, A.W., and Ball, J.K. (2020). Hepatitis C Virus Vaccine: Challenges and Prospects. Vaccines, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines8010090"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2474","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.2474","article-title":"Prospects for developing an Hepatitis C virus E1E2-based nanoparticle vaccine","volume":"33","author":"Toth","year":"2023","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e977","DOI":"10.1002\/iid3.977","article-title":"Therapeutic strategies and promising vaccine for hepatitis C virus infection","volume":"11","author":"Adugna","year":"2023","journal-title":"Immun. Inflamm. Dis."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2023.12.019","article-title":"Animal hepacivirus models for hepatitis C virus immune responses and pathology","volume":"81","author":"Kennedy","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Ostanin, A.A., and Russian Academy of Medical Sciences (2026, March 15). Autologous Dendritic Cell Vaccine for Treatment of Patients with Chronic HCV-Infection, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03119025?cond=NCT03119025&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"GeneCure Biotechnologies (2026, March 15). Therapeutic Hepatitis C Virus Vaccine, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04318379?cond=NCT04318379&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"National Cancer Institute (2026, March 15). DNA Vaccine Therapy in Treating Patients with Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Infection, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT02772003?cond=NCT02772003&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"University of Oxford (2026, March 15). Class II Invariant Chain HCV Vaccine Study, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03688061?cond=NCT03688061&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"GeneOne Life Science, Inc. (2026, March 15). Evaluation of Safety, Tolerability, and Immunogenicity Study of GLS-6150 in Healthy Volunteers and in Persons Previously Treated for Hepatitis C Virus Infection, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03674125?cond=NCT03674125&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1080\/15476286.2023.2289709","article-title":"Structural and computational studies of HIV-1 RNA","volume":"21","author":"Levintov","year":"2024","journal-title":"RNA Biol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moretti, S., Schietroma, I., Sberna, G., Maggiorella, M.T., Sernicola, L., Farcomeni, S., Giovanetti, M., Ciccozzi, M., and Borsetti, A. (2023). HIV-1-Host Interaction in Gut-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (GALT): Effects on Local Environment and Comorbidities. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241512193"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1186\/s40001-024-01750-6","article-title":"CD4(+) T cell count and HIV-1 viral load dynamics positively impacted by H. pylori infection in HIV-positive patients regardless of ART status in a high-burden setting","volume":"29","author":"Abadi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0056021","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00560-21","article-title":"VIP-SPOT: An Innovative Assay To Quantify the Productive HIV-1 Reservoir in the Monitoring of Cure Strategies","volume":"12","author":"Puertas","year":"2021","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berendam, S.J., Nelson, A.N., Yagnik, B., Goswami, R., Styles, T.M., Neja, M.A., Phan, C.T., Dankwa, S., Byrd, A.U., and Garrido, C. (2022). Challenges and Opportunities of Therapies Targeting Early Life Immunity for Pediatric HIV Cure. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.885272"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2016.02.010","article-title":"Approaches to preventative and therapeutic HIV vaccines","volume":"17","author":"Gray","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-0274-9","article-title":"CD8(+) T cells in HIV control, cure and prevention","volume":"20","author":"Collins","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1097\/COH.0000000000000765","article-title":"HIV T-cell immunogen design and delivery","volume":"17","author":"Brander","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, J., Jaijyan, D.K., Tang, Q., and Zhu, H. (2019). Promising Cytomegalovirus-Based Vaccine Vector Induces Robust CD8(+) T-Cell Response. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20184457"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e198294","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI198294","article-title":"Boosting SIV-specific CD8+ T cell responses prior to ART interruption extends time to SIVmac239 rebound","volume":"136","author":"Omange","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Clin. Invest."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"RP95964","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.95964","article-title":"Purging viral latency by a bifunctional HSV-vectored therapeutic vaccine in chronically SIV-infected macaques","volume":"13","author":"Wen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Edupuganti, S., De Rosa, S.C., Elizaga, M., Lu, Y., Han, X., Huang, Y., Swann, E., Polakowski, L., Kalams, S.A., and Keefer, M. (2020). Intramuscular and Intradermal Electroporation of HIV-1 PENNVAX-GP(\u00ae) DNA Vaccine and IL-12 Is Safe, Tolerable, Acceptable in Healthy Adults. Vaccines, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines8040741"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2146","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-57284-w","article-title":"Safety, immunogenicity and effect on viral rebound of HTI vaccines combined with a TLR7 agonist in early-treated HIV-1 infection: A randomized, placebo-controlled phase 2a trial","volume":"16","author":"Curran","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1097\/COH.0000000000000491","article-title":"Therapeutic vaccination for HIV: Hopes and challenges","volume":"13","author":"Stephenson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, Q., Liu, X., Tong, J., Li, H., Zhang, H., Chen, J., Zhang, M., Li, Z., and Li, Q. (2025). The DNA Vaccines for the Gn and Gc Heterologous Polymer of Severe Fever with Thrombocytopenia Syndrome Virus Induce Potent Immunogenicity in Mice. Vaccines, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines13121186"},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Immune Response BioPharma (2026, March 15). REMUNE + AMPLIVAX IR103 HIV\/AIDS Phase III Safety & Efficacy Study (RAISE), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT02366026?cond=NCT02366026&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"Aelix Therapeutics (2026, March 15). Safety, Tolerability and Immunogenicity of MVA.HTI and ChAdOx1.HTI with Vesatolimod in HIV-1 Positive Patients (AELIX-003), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04364035?cond=NCT04364035&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"Steven Deeks (2026, March 15). Therapeutic Vaccination in Treated HIV Disease, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03606213?cond=NCT03606213&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (2026, March 15). HIV-1-Gag Conserved-Element DNA Vaccine (p24CE) Vaccine Study, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03560258?cond=NCT03560258&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"Janssen Vaccines & Prevention B.V. (2026, March 15). Safety and Efficacy Study of Vaccine Schedule with Ad26.Mos.HIV and MVA-Mosaic in Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-Infected Adults, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT02919306?cond=NCT02919306&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"ANRS, Emerging Infectious Diseases (2026, March 15). A HIV Vaccine Trial in Individuals Who Started Antiretrovirals During Primary or Chronic Infection (EHVA T02), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04120415?cond=NCT04120415&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_101","unstructured":"Bionor Immuno AS (2026, March 15). Re-boosting of HIV-1 Infected Subjects with Vacc-4x (Re-Boost), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT01712256?cond=NCT01712256&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_102","unstructured":"Imperial College London (2026, March 15). The Safety and Immunogenicity of the DNA-GTU Vaccine Administered to HIV-infected Patients on ART vs Placebo (CUTHIVTHER001), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT02457689?cond=NCT02457689&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"InnaVirVax (2026, March 15). Open-label, Phase I\/IIa Study of VAC-3S in HIV-1 Patients Who Showed an Immune Response to VAC-3S During IVVAC-3S\/P1, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT02390466?cond=NCT02390466&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"Juelg, B. (2026, March 15). Safety, Immunogenicity, Efficacy of Ad26.Mos4.HIV, MVA-BN-HIV and PGT121, PGDM1400, and VRC07-523LS in HIV-1-Infected Adults, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04983030?cond=NCT04983030&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_105","unstructured":"ANRS, Emerging Infectious Diseases (2026, March 15). An HIV Vaccine Trial in Individuals Who Started ART During Primary or Chronic Infection (EHVAT01), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT02972450?cond=NCT02972450&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_106","unstructured":"Theravectys S.A. (2026, March 15). Safety, Tolerability and Immunogenicity Induced by the THV01 Treatment in Patients Infected with HIV-1 Clade B and Treated with Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT02054286?cond=NCT02054286&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_107","unstructured":"Immuno Cure Holding (HK) Limited (2026, March 15). ICVAX as a HIV Therapeutic DNA Vaccine, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT06253533?cond=NCT06253533&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_108","unstructured":"Sharon Riddler (2026, March 15). Comparison of Dendritic Cell-Based Therapeutic Vaccine Strategies for HIV Functional Cure (DC-HIV04), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03758625?cond=NCT03758625&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_109","unstructured":"Pich, J. (2026, March 15). Evaluating a Combination of Immune-based Therapies to Achieve a Remission of HIV Infection (HIVACAR), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03619278?cond=NCT03619278&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_110","unstructured":"Hookipa Biotech GmbH (2026, March 15). Safety, Reactogenicity and Immunogenicity of HB-502 and HB-501 Versus Placebo in People with HIV on Suppressive ART, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT06430905?cond=NCT06430905&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_111","unstructured":"University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (2026, March 15). Safety and Immunogenicity of HIV-1 Vaccines C62-M4 or C1C62-M3M4 in Persons with HIV-1 Suppressed on ART (CM HIV-CORE008), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT05604209?cond=NCT05604209&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_112","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, China (2026, March 15). Safety and Immunogenicity of Recombinant HIV Vaccines for HIV\/AIDS, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT01881581?cond=NCT01881581&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_113","unstructured":"ANRS, Emerging Infectious Diseases (2026, March 15). Lipopeptide Immunisation with GTU-MultiHIV Trial, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT01492985?cond=NCT01492985&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_114","unstructured":"Ensoli, B. (2026, March 15). A Phase II of a Therapeutic, Recombinant, Biologically Active HIV-1 Tat Protein Vaccine in HIV-Infected, Anti-Tat Negative, ARV-Treated Adult Volunteers (ISS T-003), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT01513135?cond=NCT01513135&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_115","unstructured":"BIOSANTECH (2026, March 15). Evaluation on Seropositive Patients of a Synthetic Vaccine Targeting the HIV Tat Protein (EVATAT), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT01793818?cond=NCT01793818&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1186\/s12939-025-02669-y","article-title":"Revisiting HPV vaccination post-COVID: Geopolitical, sociocultural, and ethical disparities in global health","volume":"24","author":"Sad","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Equity Health"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-023-02001-6","article-title":"Evaluation of the clinical efficacy of vaginal treatment options for persistent high-risk human papillomavirus infection after excisional treatment of cervical high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions: A systematic review and Bayesian network meta-analysis","volume":"20","author":"Tang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, Y., Shen, Y., Wei, X., Feng, J., and Zhu, L. (2025). Predictive value of vaginal lactic acid bacteria changes on occurrence of HR-HPV-infected cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and construction and validation of nomogram model. BMC Cancer, 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12885-025-14604-z"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4953","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-20-2833","article-title":"Cervical Cancer Immunotherapy: Facts and Hopes","volume":"27","author":"Ferrall","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2023.08.047","article-title":"Prophylactic HPV vaccines in patients with HPV-associated diseases and cancer","volume":"41","author":"Reuschenbach","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garbuglia, A.R., Lapa, D., Sias, C., Capobianchi, M.R., and Del Porto, P. (2020). The Use of Both Therapeutic and Prophylactic Vaccines in the Therapy of Papillomavirus Disease. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00188"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2610899","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2025.2610899","article-title":"Toward next-generation therapeutic HPV vaccines: A review on expanding the antigen repertoire and an integrated bioinformatics selection framework","volume":"22","author":"Zhang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccin. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e29309","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.29309","article-title":"mRNA-HPV vaccine encoding E6 and E7 improves therapeutic potential for HPV-mediated cancers via subcutaneous immunization","volume":"95","author":"Lee","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1629259","DOI":"10.1080\/2162402X.2019.1629259","article-title":"HPV16 RNA-LPX vaccine mediates complete regression of aggressively growing HPV-positive mouse tumors and establishes protective T cell memory","volume":"8","author":"Grunwitz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Oncoimmunology"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e000704","DOI":"10.1136\/jitc-2020-000704","article-title":"Bivalent therapeutic vaccine against HPV16\/18 genotypes consisting of a fusion protein between the extra domain A from human fibronectin and HPV16\/18 E7 viral antigens","volume":"8","author":"Arribillaga","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Immunother. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03862-z","article-title":"Functional HPV-specific PD-1(+) stem-like CD8 T cells in head and neck cancer","volume":"597","author":"Eberhardt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2022.10.069","article-title":"A novel multi-epitope vaccine of HPV16 E5E6E7 oncoprotein delivered by HBc VLPs induced efficient prophylactic and therapeutic antitumor immunity in tumor mice model","volume":"40","author":"Qi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18713","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-55014-z","article-title":"A multi-genotype therapeutic human papillomavirus vaccine elicits potent T cell responses to conserved regions of early proteins","volume":"9","author":"Hancock","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2078","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(15)00239-1","article-title":"Safety, efficacy, and immunogenicity of VGX-3100, a therapeutic synthetic DNA vaccine targeting human papillomavirus 16 and 18 E6 and E7 proteins for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia 2\/3: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2b trial","volume":"386","author":"Trimble","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102716","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2024.102716","article-title":"GX-188E DNA vaccine plus pembrolizumab in HPV 16- and\/or 18-positive recurrent or advance cervical cancer: A phase 2 trial","volume":"74","author":"Lim","year":"2024","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_131","unstructured":"BioNTech SE (2026, March 15). A Clinical Trial Investigating the Safety, Tolerability, and Therapeutic Effects of BNT113 in Combination with Pembrolizumab Versus Pembrolizumab Alone for Patients with a Form of Head and Neck Cancer Positive for Human Papilloma Virus 16 and Expressing the Protein PD-L1 (AHEAD-MERIT), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04534205?cond=BNT113&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112981","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejca.2023.112981","article-title":"Phase Ib\/II trial of tipapkinogene sovacivec, a therapeutic human papillomavirus16-vaccine, in combination with avelumab in patients with advanced human papillomavirus16-positive cancers","volume":"191","author":"Borcoman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(24)00368-0","article-title":"PRGN-2012 gene therapy in adults with recurrent respiratory papillomatosis: A pivotal phase 1\/2 clinical trial","volume":"13","author":"Norberg","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lauterbach, H., Schmidt, S., Katchar, K., Qing, X., Iacobucci, C., Hwang, A., Schlienger, K., Berka, U., Raguz, J., and Ahmadi-Erber, S. (2021). Development and Characterization of a Novel Non-Lytic Cancer Immunotherapy Using a Recombinant Arenavirus Vector Platform. Front. Oncol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2021.732166"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mart\u00edn, E., Reina, G., and Carlos, S. (2025). Advances in Therapeutic Vaccines Against HPV: A Review of Human Clinical Trials. Curr. Oncol., 32.","DOI":"10.3390\/curroncol32110600"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hellner, K., Simon, P., De Sutter, P., Vahula, K.L., Briggs, P., Kiisla, \u00dc., Russell, M., Newton, C., Dewilde, K., and Anderson, K. (2025). A Phase 1b\/2, Randomised, Placebo-controlled Study to Evaluate Safety, Tolerability, Efficacy, and Immunogenicity of VTP-200, a Chimpanzee Adenovirus and Modified Vaccinia Ankara-vectored Multigenotype High-Risk Human Papillomavirus Vaccine in Women with Low-grade Cervical Lesions. Clin. Infect. Dis., ciaf658.","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaf658"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e010827","DOI":"10.1136\/jitc-2024-010827","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of the therapeutic DNA-based vaccine VB10.16 in combination with atezolizumab in persistent, recurrent or metastatic HPV16-positive cervical cancer: A multicenter, single-arm phase 2a study","volume":"13","author":"Hillemanns","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Immunother. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoncol.2024.6998","article-title":"Novel Combination Immunotherapy and Clinical Activity in Patients with HPV-Associated Cancers: A Nonrandomized Clinical Trial","volume":"11","author":"Floudas","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA Oncol."},{"key":"ref_139","unstructured":"Inovio Pharmaceuticals (2026, March 15). REVEAL 1 (Evaluation of VGX-3100 and Electroporation for the Treatment of Cervical HSIL) (REVEAL 1), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03185013?cond=NCT03185013&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_140","unstructured":"Inovio Pharmaceuticals (2026, March 15). REVEAL 2 Trial (Evaluation of VGX-3100 and Electroporation for the Treatment of Cervical HSIL), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03721978?cond=NCT03721978&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_141","unstructured":"Advaxis, Inc. (2026, March 15). Study of ADXS11-001 in Participants with High Risk Locally Advanced Cervical Cancer (AIM2CERV), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT02853604?cond=NCT02853604&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_142","unstructured":"University of Southampton (2026, March 15). HARE-40: HPV Anti-CD40 RNA Vaccine (HARE-40), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03418480?cond=BNT113&viewType=Card&rank=2."},{"key":"ref_143","unstructured":"Hookipa Biotech GmbH (2026, March 15). A Study of HB-202\/HB-201 with Pembrolizumab in Patients with HPV16+ Recurrent\/Metastatic Oropharyngeal Cancer, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT06513884?cond=NCT06513884&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_144","unstructured":"Hookipa Biotech GmbH (2026, March 15). A Phase 1\/2 Study in Patients with HPV16+ Recurrent\/Metastatic Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma and Other Cancers, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04180215?cond=NCT04180215&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_145","unstructured":"Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center (2026, March 15). A Study of HB-202\/HB-201 in People with Human Papilloma Virus 16-Positive Head and Neck Squamous Cell Cancer (HPV 16+ HNSCC). ClinicalTrials.gov ID NCT06373380, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT06373380?cond=%20HB-201&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_146","unstructured":"Yonsei University (2026, March 15). HPV 16-Positive and\/or HPV 18-Positive Recurrent and\/or for Patients with Metastatic Head and Neck Cancer to Evaluate GX-188E DNA Vaccination, GX-I7 and Nivolumab Combination Therapy (TRINITY), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT05280457?cond=GX-188E&viewType=Card&rank=7."},{"key":"ref_147","unstructured":"Yonsei University (2026, March 15). Trial of the Combination of GX-188E Vaccination, GX-I7 and Pembrolizumab in Patients with Advanced, Resectable HPV Type 16 and\/or 18 Positive Head and Neck Cancer (GENUINE), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT05286060?cond=GX-188E&viewType=Card&rank=3."},{"key":"ref_148","unstructured":"National Cancer Institute (NCI) (2026, March 15). Phase II Trial of Immunotherapeutic HPV Vaccine PRGN-2009 with Pembrolizumab Before Standard Treatment in Subjects with Newly Diagnosed HPV-Associated Oropharyngeal Cancer, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT05996523?cond=PRGN-2009&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_149","unstructured":"University Medical Center Groningen (2026, March 15). Vvax001 Cancer Vaccine in Premalignant Cervical Lesions\u2014Phase II (Vvax), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT06015854?cond=Vvax001&viewType=Card&rank=2."},{"key":"ref_150","unstructured":"University Medical Center Groningen (2026, March 15). Vvax001 Cancer Vaccine in (Pre) Malignant Cervical Lesions, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03141463?cond=NCT03141463%20&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_151","unstructured":"ISA Pharmaceuticals (2026, March 15). A Phase II Study of Cemiplimab and ISA101b in Patients with Recurrent\/Metastatic HPV16 Positive OPC, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04398524?cond=NCT04398524&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_152","unstructured":"ISA Pharmaceuticals (2026, March 15). A Randomized Phase 2 Study of Cemiplimab \u00b1 ISA101b in HPV16-Positive OPC, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03669718?cond=NCT03669718&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_153","unstructured":"M.D. Anderson Cancer Center (2026, March 15). Utomilumab and ISA101b Vaccination in Patients with HPV-16-Positive Incurable Oropharyngeal, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03258008?cond=NCT03258008&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_154","unstructured":"PDS Biotechnology Corp (2026, March 15). Study of PDS0101 and Pembrolizumab Combination I\/O in Subjects with HPV16 + Recurrent and\/or Metastatic HNSCC (VERSATILE002), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04260126?cond=NCT04260126&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_155","unstructured":"M.D. Anderson Cancer Center (2026, March 15). A Vaccine (PDS0101) and Chemoradiation for the Treatment of Stage IB3-IVA Cervical Cancer, the IMMUNOCERV Trial, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04580771?cond=A%20Vaccine%20(PDS0101)%20and%20Chemoradiation%20for%20the%20Treatment%20of%20Stage%20IB3-IVA%20Cervical%20Cancer&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_156","unstructured":"PapiVax Biotech, Inc. (2026, March 15). Phase II Study of Treatment for HPV16+ ASC-US, ASC-H and LSIL (PVX2), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03911076?cond=TA-CIN&viewType=Card&rank=5&tab=study."},{"key":"ref_157","unstructured":"Nykode Therapeutics ASA (2026, March 15). Investigating the Combination of VB10.16 and Atezolizumab in Patients with HPV 16-positive Cervical Cancer, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04405349?cond=VB10.16&viewType=Card&rank=2."},{"key":"ref_158","unstructured":"Nykode Therapeutics ASA (2026, March 15). An Exploratory Safety and Immunogenicity Study of HPV16+ Immunotherapy VB10.16 in Women with HSIL; CIN 2\/3), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT02529930?cond=VB10.16&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_159","unstructured":"Nykode Therapeutics ASA (2026, March 15). Safety and Efficacy of VB10.16 and Pembrolizumab in Patients with Head-Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT06016920?cond=VB10.16&viewType=Card&rank=3."},{"key":"ref_160","unstructured":"Gibson, M.K. (2026, March 15). pBI-11 & TA-HPV (with Pembrolizumab as Treatment for Patients w\/Advanced, PD-L1 CPS \u2265 1, hrHPV + Oropharyngeal Cancer, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT05799144?cond=NCT05799144&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_161","unstructured":"M.D. Anderson Cancer Center (2026, March 15). DNA Plasmid-encoding Interleukin-12\/HPV DNA Plasmids Therapeutic Vaccine INO-3112 and Durvalumab in Treating Patients with Recurrent or Metastatic Human Papillomavirus Associated Cancers, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03439085?cond=NCT03439085&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_162","unstructured":"University of Arkansas (2026, March 15). A Clinical Trial of PepCan to Two Therapy Arms for Treating Cervical High-Grade Squamous Intraepithelial Lesions, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT02481414?cond=NCT02481414&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_163","unstructured":"University of Arkansas (2026, March 15). A Phase I\/II Clinical Trial of PepCan in Head and Neck Cancer Patients, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03821272?cond=NCT03821272&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_164","unstructured":"Cellid Co., Ltd. (2026, March 15). Safety and Tolerability Evaluation Study of BVAC-C in Patients with HPV Type 16 or 18 Positive Cervical Cancer, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT02866006?cond=NCT02866006&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_165","unstructured":"Transgene (2026, March 15). Phase Ib\/II of TG4001 and Avelumab in HPV16 Positive R\/M Cancers, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03260023?cond=TG4001&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_166","unstructured":"Precigen, Inc. (2026, March 15). Adjuvant PRGN-2012 in Adult Patients with Recurrent Respiratory Papillomatosis, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04724980?cond=PRGN-2012&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_167","unstructured":"Barinthus Biotherapeutics (2026, March 15). Prime-boost Vaccine Study in Women with Low-grade Cervical HPV Lesions, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04607850?cond=NCT04607850&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_168","unstructured":"Dana-Farber Cancer Institute (2026, March 15). Trial to Test Safety and Efficacy of Vaccination for Incurable HPV 16-Related Oropharyngeal, Cervical and Anal Cancer, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT02865135."},{"key":"ref_169","unstructured":"Janssen Vaccines & Prevention B.V. (2026, March 15). Safety, Reactogenicity and Immunogenicity of Adenovirus Serotype 26 (Ad26)- and Modified Vaccinia Ankara (MVA)-Vectored Vaccine Components in Otherwise Healthy Women with HPV16 or HPV18 Infection of the Cervix, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03610581?cond=Ad26.HPV16&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, J.M., Alves, C.E.C., and Pontes, G.S. (2024). Epstein-Barr virus: The mastermind of immune chaos. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1297994"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Murata, T., Sugimoto, A., Inagaki, T., Yanagi, Y., Watanabe, T., Sato, Y., and Kimura, H. (2021). Molecular Basis of Epstein-Barr Virus Latency Establishment and Lytic Reactivation. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13122344"},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbcan.2024.189218","article-title":"Epstein Barr virus: A cellular hijacker in cancer","volume":"1879","author":"Alsaadawe","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e179483","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI179483","article-title":"Therapeutic vaccines for herpesviruses","volume":"134","author":"Cohen","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clin. Invest."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cui, X., and Snapper, C.M. (2021). Epstein Barr Virus: Development of Vaccines and Immune Cell Therapy for EBV-Associated Diseases. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.734471"},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chakravorty, S., Afzali, B., and Kazemian, M. (2022). EBV-associated diseases: Current therapeutics and emerging technologies. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.1059133"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.78.2.768-778.2004","article-title":"Dual stimulation of Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV)-specific CD4+- and CD8+-T-cell responses by a chimeric antigen construct: Potential therapeutic vaccine for EBV-positive nasopharyngeal carcinoma","volume":"78","author":"Taylor","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5009","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-14-1122-T","article-title":"A recombinant modified vaccinia ankara vaccine encoding Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) target antigens: A phase I trial in UK patients with EBV-positive cancer","volume":"20","author":"Taylor","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1097\/CJI.0b013e31828bd87b","article-title":"Delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) immune response related with EBV-DNA in nasopharyngeal carcinoma treated with autologous dendritic cell vaccination after radiotherapy","volume":"36","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.3892\/or.2026.9111","article-title":"T cell fate regulation in EBV-associated nasopharyngeal carcinoma (Review)","volume":"55","author":"Zhang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Oncol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_180","unstructured":"Chinese University of Hong Kong (2026, March 15). Efficacy of Recombinant Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) Vaccine in Patients with Nasopharyngeal Cancer Who Had Residual EBV DNA Load After Conventional Therapy, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT01094405?cond=NCT01094405&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_181","unstructured":"Cancer Research UK (2026, March 15). Vaccine Therapy in Treating Patients with Epstein-Barr Virus-Related Cancer, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT01147991?cond=NCT01147991&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_182","unstructured":"National Institutes of Health Clinical Center (CC) (2026, March 15). Peptide Vaccine to Prevent Recurrence of Nasopharyngeal Cancer, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT00078494?cond=Peptide%20Vaccine%20to%20Prevent%20Recurrence%20of%20Nasopharyngeal%20Cancer.&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_183","unstructured":"West China Hospital (2026, March 15). Application of mRNA Immunotherapy Technology in Epstein-Barr Virus-Related Refractory Malignant Tumors, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT05714748?cond=NCT05714748&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_184","unstructured":"ModernaTX, Inc. (2026, March 15). A Study of an Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) Candidate Vaccine, mRNA-1195, in 18- to 55-Year-Old Healthy Participants, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT05831111?cond=NCT05831111&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_185","unstructured":"Sun Yat-sen University (2026, March 15). Evaluation of WGc-043 Injection in Advanced Solid Tumors: Phase I Study, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT07028047?cond=WGc-043&viewType=Card&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gendis.2024.101215","article-title":"Epigenetic regulation and its therapeutic potential in hepatitis B virus covalently closed circular DNA","volume":"12","author":"Ren","year":"2025","journal-title":"Genes. Dis."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4663","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-40225-w","article-title":"Molecular insights into Spindlin1-HBx interplay and its impact on HBV transcription from cccDNA minichromosome","volume":"14","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-021-00549-4","article-title":"Immunobiology and pathogenesis of hepatitis B virus infection","volume":"22","author":"Iannacone","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, L., Hou, J., Xu, Y., Qin, L., Liu, W., Zhang, H., Li, Y., Chen, M., Deng, M., and Zhao, B. (2020). PD-L1 upregulation by IFN-\u03b1\/\u03b3-mediated Stat1 suppresses anti-HBV T cell response. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.01.14.906339"},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Costa, J.P., de Carvalho, A., Paiva, A., and Borges, O. (2024). Insights into Immune Exhaustion in Chronic Hepatitis B: A Review of Checkpoint Receptor Expression. Pharmaceuticals, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph17070964"},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1080\/1744666X.2023.2198209","article-title":"The CD8+ T cell exhaustion mechanisms in chronic hepatitis B infection and immunotherapeutic strategies: A systematic review","volume":"19","author":"Allahmoradi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1234","DOI":"10.4254\/wjh.v13.i10.1234","article-title":"In the era of rapid mRNA-based vaccines: Why is there no effective hepatitis C virus vaccine yet?","volume":"13","author":"Comas","year":"2021","journal-title":"World J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2992","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0408824102","article-title":"Immune evasion by hepatitis C virus NS3\/4A protease-mediated cleavage of the Toll-like receptor 3 adaptor protein TRIF","volume":"102","author":"Li","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.4RI0214-126R","article-title":"Immune control and failure in HCV infection--tipping the balance","volume":"96","author":"Dustin","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-pathol-050520-112001","article-title":"In Vivo Dynamics of the Latent Reservoir for HIV-1: New Insights and Implications for Cure","volume":"17","author":"Siliciano","year":"2022","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0244721","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.02447-21","article-title":"HIV-1 Genomes Are Enriched in Memory CD4(+) T-Cells with Short Half-Lives","volume":"12","author":"Morcilla","year":"2021","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaax6795","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aax6795","article-title":"Different human resting memory CD4(+) T cell subsets show similar low inducibility of latent HIV-1 proviruses","volume":"12","author":"Kwon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1904","DOI":"10.1182\/bloodadvances.2021006001","article-title":"Hypermethylation at the CXCR5 gene locus limits trafficking potential of CD8+ T cells into B-cell follicles during HIV-1 infection","volume":"6","author":"Ogunshola","year":"2022","journal-title":"Blood Adv."},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beck, S.E., Veenhuis, R.T., and Blankson, J.N. (2019). Does B Cell Follicle Exclusion of CD8+ T Cells Make Lymph Nodes Sanctuaries of HIV Replication?. Front. Immunol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.02362"},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e29461","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.29461","article-title":"The human papillomavirus late life cycle and links to keratinocyte differentiation","volume":"96","author":"Kirk","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moody, C.A. (2022). Regulation of the Innate Immune Response during the Human Papillomavirus Life Cycle. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14081797"},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, C., Tuong, Z.K., and Frazer, I.H. (2019). Papillomavirus Immune Evasion Strategies Target the Infected Cell and the Local Immune System. Front. Oncol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2019.00682"},{"key":"ref_203","first-page":"22","article-title":"Cervical cancer immune microenvironment: Mechanisms of HPV-mediated immune evasion and advances in immunotherapy (Review)","volume":"31","author":"Zhou","year":"2026","journal-title":"Oncol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wakabayashi, R., Nakahama, Y., Nguyen, V., and Espinoza, J.L. (2019). The Host-Microbe Interplay in Human Papillomavirus-Induced Carcinogenesis. Microorganisms, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms7070199"},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jayshree, R.S. (2021). The Immune Microenvironment in Human Papilloma Virus-Induced Cervical Lesions-Evidence for Estrogen as an Immunomodulator. Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.649815"},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10110","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkac751","article-title":"The nascent polypeptide-associated complex (NAC) controls translation initiation in cis by recruiting nucleolin to the encoding mRNA","volume":"50","author":"Zheng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hau, P.M., Lung, H.L., Wu, M., Tsang, C.M., Wong, K.L., Mak, N.K., and Lo, K.W. (2020). Targeting Epstein-Barr Virus in Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma. Front. Oncol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2020.00600"},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Su, C., Lu, F., Soldan, S.S., Lamontagne, R.J., Tang, H.Y., Napoletani, G., Farrell, P.J., Tempera, I., Kossenkov, A.V., and Lieberman, P.M. (2021). EBNA2 driven enhancer switching at the CIITA-DEXI locus suppresses HLA class II gene expression during EBV infection of B-lymphocytes. PLoS Pathog., 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1009834"},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sausen, D.G., Poirier, M.C., Spiers, L.M., and Smith, E.N. (2023). Mechanisms of T cell evasion by Epstein-Barr virus and implications for tumor survival. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1289313"},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u00fcnz, C. (2021). Immune Escape by Non-coding RNAs of the Epstein Barr Virus. Front. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.657387"},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1020","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-021-00979-1","article-title":"Epigenetic scars of CD8(+) T cell exhaustion persist after cure of chronic infection in humans","volume":"22","author":"Yates","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E2776","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1620498114","article-title":"Exhaustion-associated regulatory regions in CD8(+) tumor-infiltrating T cells","volume":"114","author":"Mognol","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"848","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-022-01224-z","article-title":"Epigenetic regulation of T cell exhaustion","volume":"23","author":"Belk","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1165","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aae0491","article-title":"The epigenetic landscape of T cell exhaustion","volume":"354","author":"Sen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1325-x","article-title":"TOX transcriptionally and epigenetically programs CD8(+) T cell exhaustion","volume":"571","author":"Khan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_216","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2020.04.014","article-title":"Developmental Relationships of Four Exhausted CD8(+) T Cell Subsets Reveals Underlying Transcriptional and Epigenetic Landscape Control Mechanisms","volume":"52","author":"Beltra","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_217","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2016.07.021","article-title":"T Cell Factor 1-Expressing Memory-like CD8(+) T Cells Sustain the Immune Response to Chronic Viral Infections","volume":"45","author":"Utzschneider","year":"2016","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_218","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1038\/nature19330","article-title":"Defining CD8+ T cells that provide the proliferative burst after PD-1 therapy","volume":"537","author":"Im","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_219","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1160","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aaf2807","article-title":"Epigenetic stability of exhausted T cells limits durability of reinvigoration by PD-1 blockade","volume":"354","author":"Pauken","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_220","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, Z., Feng, Y., Xu, J., and Liang, J. (2022). T-cell exhaustion in immune-mediated inflammatory diseases: New implications for immunotherapy. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.977394"},{"key":"ref_221","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2023.06.002","article-title":"Guidance on treatment endpoints and study design for clinical trials aiming to achieve cure in chronic hepatitis B and D: Report from the 2022 AASLD-EASL HBV-HDV Treatment Endpoints Conference","volume":"79","author":"Ghany","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_222","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2017.07.002","article-title":"Interventions to enhance testing, linkage to care and treatment uptake for hepatitis C virus infection among people who inject drugs: A systematic review","volume":"47","author":"Bajis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Drug Policy"},{"key":"ref_223","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2016.07.012","article-title":"HCV epidemiology in high-risk groups and the risk of reinfection","volume":"65","author":"Midgard","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_224","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2085","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01590-5","article-title":"Research priorities for an HIV cure: International AIDS Society Global Scientific Strategy 2021","volume":"27","author":"Deeks","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_225","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(22)01468-4","article-title":"Hepatitis B","volume":"401","author":"Jeng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_226","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-022-00724-5","article-title":"The scientific basis of combination therapy for chronic hepatitis B functional cure","volume":"20","author":"Lim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_227","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra2211764","article-title":"New Approaches to Chronic Hepatitis B","volume":"388","author":"Dusheiko","year":"2023","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_228","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"924","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2023.05.023","article-title":"Evaluation of RNAi therapeutics VIR-2218 and ALN-HBV for chronic hepatitis B: Results from randomized clinical trials","volume":"79","author":"Gane","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_229","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1957","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2210027","article-title":"Efficacy and Safety of Bepirovirsen in Chronic Hepatitis B Infection","volume":"387","author":"Yuen","year":"2022","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_230","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-1253(18)30007-4","article-title":"Defective T-cell immunity in hepatitis B virus infection: Why therapeutic vaccination needs a helping hand","volume":"3","author":"Maini","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_231","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2424","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-02023-7","article-title":"Early intervention with 3BNC117 and romidepsin at antiretroviral treatment initiation in people with HIV-1: A phase 1b\/2a, randomized trial","volume":"28","author":"Gunst","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_232","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1007\/s00432-021-03824-y","article-title":"Estimating the global burden of Epstein-Barr virus-related cancers","volume":"148","author":"Wong","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_233","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aav5095","article-title":"Structural topology defines protective CD8(+) T cell epitopes in the HIV proteome","volume":"364","author":"Gaiha","year":"2019","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_234","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2306390120","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2306390120","article-title":"Nucleolin binds to and regulates transcription of hepatitis B virus covalently closed circular DNA minichromosome","volume":"120","author":"Xia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_235","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-023-01674-3","article-title":"Therapeutic cancer vaccines: Advancements, challenges, and prospects","volume":"8","author":"Fan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_236","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-023-00795-8","article-title":"Development and use of machine learning algorithms in vaccine target selection","volume":"9","author":"Bravi","year":"2024","journal-title":"npj Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_237","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10316","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-54734-9","article-title":"Machine learning-enhanced immunopeptidomics applied to T-cell epitope discovery for COVID-19 vaccines","volume":"15","author":"Kovalchik","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_238","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-025-01258-y","article-title":"Publisher Correction: AI-driven epitope prediction: A systematic review, comparative analysis, and practical guide for vaccine development","volume":"10","year":"2025","journal-title":"npj Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_239","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W449","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkaa379","article-title":"NetMHCpan-4.1 and NetMHCIIpan-4.0: Improved predictions of MHC antigen presentation by concurrent motif deconvolution and integration of MS MHC eluted ligand data","volume":"48","author":"Reynisson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_240","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2020.06.019","article-title":"Controlling timing and location in vaccines","volume":"158","author":"Irvine","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_241","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-020-00565-9","article-title":"Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes in the immunotherapy era","volume":"18","author":"Paijens","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_242","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1038\/s41573-021-00163-y","article-title":"Emerging concepts in the science of vaccine adjuvants","volume":"20","author":"Pulendran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_243","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-021-00649-1","article-title":"Engaging innate immunity in HIV-1 cure strategies","volume":"22","author":"Board","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_244","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"St Leger, A.J., Koelle, D.M., Kinchington, P.R., and Verjans, G. (2021). Local Immune Control of Latent Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in Ganglia of Mice and Man. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.723809"},{"key":"ref_245","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1186\/s43556-024-00199-7","article-title":"A review of HSV pathogenesis, vaccine development, and advanced applications","volume":"5","author":"Bai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_246","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharma, D., Sharma, S., Akojwar, N., Dondulkar, A., Yenorkar, N., Pandita, D., Prasad, S.K., and Dhobi, M. (2023). An Insight into Current Treatment Strategies, Their Limitations, and Ongoing Developments in Vaccine Technologies against Herpes Simplex Infections. Vaccines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines11020206"}],"container-title":["Vaccines"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-393X\/14\/6\/507\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,6]],"date-time":"2026-06-06T04:50:27Z","timestamp":1780721427000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-393X\/14\/6\/507"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]]},"references-count":246,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["vaccines14060507"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/vaccines14060507","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-393X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-393X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]]}}}