{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,6]],"date-time":"2026-11-06T09:15:09Z","timestamp":1793956509503,"version":"4.8.0"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,9]],"date-time":"2026-06-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780963200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["82272144"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82272144"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["82272144"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82272144"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100021171","name":"Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2025B1515020074"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025B1515020074"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100021171","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003392","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Fujian Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2025J09009"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025J09009"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003392","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010877","name":"Shenzhen Science and Technology Innovation Commission","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JCYJ20230807091404010"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JCYJ20230807091404010"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010877","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010877","name":"Shenzhen Science and Technology Innovation Commission","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JCYJ20250604122906008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JCYJ20250604122906008"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010877","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["JCYJ20230807091404010"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JCYJ20230807091404010"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/017n8df75","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["JCYJ20250604122906008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JCYJ20250604122906008"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/017n8df75","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Scientific Research Foundation of State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory","award":["2024XAKJ0102004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024XAKJ0102004"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The magnitude and quality of adaptive immune responses are fundamentally influenced by the efficiency of antigen presentation. Traditional vaccine platforms, such as live\u2013attenuated or inactivated pathogens, although immunogenic, often present safety concerns. Conversely, subunit vaccines, despite being safer, generally exhibit poor immunogenicity due to inadequate delivery of antigens to professional antigen\u2013presenting cells (APCs). To address this issue, the development of innovative delivery systems has become a pivotal strategy to overcome significant biological barriers, including extracellular antigen degradation, suboptimal lymph node targeting, and inefficient cross\u2013presentation necessary for CD8+ T cell activation. This review systematically explores recent advancements in delivery technologies aimed at enhancing antigen presentation, encompassing rationally engineered nanocarriers and sophisticated biomimetic platforms. We first examine how nanoparticle properties like size, surface charge, and ligand density affect intracellular trafficking and the transition from MHC\u2013II to MHC\u2013I cross\u2013presentation. Then, we explore bioinspired systems such as extracellular vesicles, virus\u2013like particles, and cell\u2013membrane\u2013coated nanoparticles that utilize natural biological traits for enhanced targeting and immune modulation. Additionally, we review new physical delivery methods like microneedle arrays and in situ electroporation for direct, minimally invasive antigen delivery to dendritic cells. Lastly, we discuss the potential of these platforms in personalized cancer vaccines and combination immunotherapies. By combining insights from materials science, immunology, and bioengineering, these next\u2013generation delivery tools could enhance antigen presentation and transform precision vaccination and immune intervention.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines14060516","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]],"date-time":"2026-06-10T06:33:44Z","timestamp":1781073224000},"page":"516","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Tools for Antigen Delivery: From Traditional Nanocarriers and Biomimetic Platforms to Emerging Physical, Bioengineered and Computational Approaches"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Liying","family":"Sun","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Key Laboratory of Pathogen Infection Prevention and Control (Ministry of Education), State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Health and Multimorbidity, National Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100005, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yujiao","family":"Miao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Key Laboratory of Pathogen Infection Prevention and Control (Ministry of Education), State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Health and Multimorbidity, National Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100005, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Deyun","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Key Laboratory of Pathogen Infection Prevention and Control (Ministry of Education), State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Health and Multimorbidity, National Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100005, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1951-2375","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chao","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, and Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Target Research, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China"},{"name":"Shenzhen Research Institute of Xiamen University, Shenzhen 518000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116776","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2025.116776","article-title":"Phage induction of Staphylococcus aureus pathogenicity islands promotes the CRISPR\u2013Cas adaptive immune response","volume":"45","author":"Banh","year":"2026","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bowley, T.Y., Lenz, K.D., Shanker, A., and Kubicek\u2013Sutherland, J.Z. 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