{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T10:32:29Z","timestamp":1785407549286,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":142,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782777600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100004440","name":"Wellcome Trust","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["224117\/Z\/21\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["224117\/Z\/21\/Z"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100004440","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["224117\/Z\/21\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["224117\/Z\/21\/Z"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/029chgv08","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Eastern, Venezuelan, and Western equine encephalitis viruses (EEEV, VEEV, and WEEV) are encephalitic alphaviruses transmitted by mosquitoes throughout the Americas. Infection by these viruses can present in humans as a febrile illness; however, it may progress into potentially life-threatening encephalitis. Currently, no publicly licensed vaccines are available, and at-risk individuals are restricted to superseded vaccines. Here, we will review recent advances in our understanding of how these viruses spread among animal populations and cause disease, and how we can manage their diagnosis and treatment. Additionally, we have summarised the recent developments in vaccines against these viruses in both pre-clinical and clinical stages. Overall, global climate change and ecological disruption drive a need for public access to safe and effective vaccines against EEEV, VEEV, and WEEV, which novel platforms, such as mRNA and viral vectors, may be able to achieve.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines14070580","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T00:50:37Z","timestamp":1782867037000},"page":"580","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Encephalitic Alphaviruses: Epidemiology, Pathogenesis and Vaccine Development"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-6528-1786","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nouha","family":"Kisra","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"St Hilda\u2019s College, University of Oxford, Cowley Place, Oxford OX4 1DY, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zoe","family":"de Zeeuw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hertford College, University of Oxford, Cattle Street, Oxford OX1 3BW, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George","family":"Eustace","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Magdalen College, University of Oxford, High Street, Oxford OX1 4AU, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rose","family":"Gladman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lincoln College, University of Oxford, Turl Street, Oxford OX1 3DR, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-4142-3581","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yong","family":"Ji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oxford Vaccine Group, Department of Paediatrics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7LE, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7304-9380","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sthefany","family":"Pagliari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oxford Vaccine Group, Department of Paediatrics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7LE, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2847-9407","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Young Chan","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oxford Vaccine Group, Department of Paediatrics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7LE, UK"},{"name":"Centre for Human Genetics, Division of Structural Biology, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1126\/science.74.1913.227","article-title":"The etiology of epizootic encephalomyelitis of horses in the San Joaquin Valley, 1930","volume":"74","author":"Meyer","year":"1931","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.3181\/00379727-31-7066C","article-title":"A serological difference between Eastern and Western equine encephalomyelitis virus","volume":"31","author":"Broeck","year":"1933","journal-title":"Proc. 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