{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,6]],"date-time":"2026-07-06T15:15:07Z","timestamp":1783350907580,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,6]],"date-time":"2026-07-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783296000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Penile squamous cell carcinoma (PSCC) is a rare malignancy with limited therapeutic options in advanced and recurrent diseases. Advanced PSCC is typically managed with multimodal therapy, including neoadjuvant chemotherapy or chemoradiation followed by surgery; however, durable responses remain uncommon, and outcomes after recurrence are poor. Cancer vaccines represent a promising immunotherapeutic strategy, as these treatments induce tumor-specific immunity and heightened immune surveillance against penile cancer cells. While therapeutic cancer vaccines have not yet demonstrated consistent clinical efficacy as monotherapy in PSCC, their integration with complementary immune-modulating approaches, particularly immune checkpoint blockade, represents a rational strategy to enhance antitumor immunity. This review summarizes the rationale for vaccine development in PSCC, with emphasis on HPV-derived antigens, neoantigens, and emerging tumor-associated targets. We examine major vaccine platforms, including viral-vector, peptide-based, nucleic acid, and dendritic cell-based approaches. We also discuss how spatial transcriptomics, single-cell RNA sequencing, artificial intelligence-assisted antigen prediction, and nanotechnology-enhanced delivery systems may support future personalized vaccine development. Overall, therapeutic vaccines remain investigational in PSCC but may become relevant within biomarker-driven, combination-based immunotherapy strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines14070597","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,6]],"date-time":"2026-07-06T13:43:14Z","timestamp":1783345394000},"page":"597","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Vaccine Therapy for the Management of Penile Cancer: Evidence, Opportunities and Challenges"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-5293-6176","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Firas","family":"Hatoum","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genitourinary Oncology and Tumor Biology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3892-7413","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricardo","family":"Nehme","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adnan","family":"Fazili","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genitourinary Oncology and Tumor Biology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Justin","family":"Miller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genitourinary Oncology and Tumor Biology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jeffrey S.","family":"Johnson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genitourinary Oncology and Tumor Biology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Casey","family":"Le","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genitourinary Oncology and Tumor Biology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5723-1972","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Philippe E.","family":"Spiess","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genitourinary Oncology and Tumor Biology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jad","family":"Chahoud","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genitourinary Oncology, Orlando Health Cancer Institute, Orlando, FL 32806, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2025, March 20). Key Statistics for Penile Cancer. Available online: https:\/\/www.cancer.org\/cancer\/types\/penile-cancer\/about\/key-statistics.html."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mannam, G., Miller, J.W., Johnson, J.S., Gullapalli, K., Fazili, A., Spiess, P.E., and Chahoud, J. (2024). HPV and Penile Cancer: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Clinical Insights. 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