{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,14]],"date-time":"2026-08-14T04:30:30Z","timestamp":1786681830400,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":149,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]],"date-time":"2026-08-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786492800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003196","name":"Italian Ministry of Health","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["PNRR-MAD-2022-12376383"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNRR-MAD-2022-12376383"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003196","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["PNRR-MAD-2022-12376383"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNRR-MAD-2022-12376383"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00789fa95","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Non-communicable diseases (NCDs), including cancer, cardiovascular, neurodegenerative, autoimmune, and allergic diseases, account for a significant amount of global morbidity and mortality. Chronic viral infections have not been recognized as NCDs, despite the availability of several therapeutic vaccination strategies against oncogenic viruses, such as the hepatitis B virus (HBV) and the human papillomavirus (HPV). Indeed, chronic viral infection leads to the development and progression of malignancies directly linked to the viruses. These considerations support a connection between NCDs, infectious diseases, and therapeutic vaccination. Recent advances in technology have paved the way to the use of vaccines beyond the prevention of infectious diseases, heralding innovative therapeutic and preventative strategies for a variety of chronic NCDs. Here we will review the state of the art of personalized vaccine strategies for NCDs, with an emphasis on the diverse technological platforms used to develop them, including mRNA and DNA vaccines, viral vectors, dendritic cell-based vaccines, nanoparticle delivery systems, and next-generation adjuvants. The review intends to make the case for personalized and antigen-specific vaccination strategies as a compelling option for precision immunotherapy primarily in oncology, where neoantigen-based vaccines are being developed. In addition, we will also review tolerogenic vaccination strategies, vaccination strategies targeting pathological proteins and pathways in neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases, and vaccine-based treatment of chronic viral infections. Current evidence about vaccines suggests that several ways are available to induce an immune response or create tolerance to a disease, and possibly altering its course instead of simply controlling the symptoms. However, many challenges are still to be overcome, including disease variability, how to identify appropriate target antigens, the complexity of manufacturing process, long-term safety, and integration with already established treatments. By virtue of the convergence of multiple fields\u2014immunology, genomics, bioinformatics, and new delivery systems\u2014precision vaccinology is gaining momentum. Thus, it is envisaged that personalized vaccines will be an increasingly essential component of future preventive and therapeutic approaches for non-communicable diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines14080693","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]],"date-time":"2026-08-12T07:57:26Z","timestamp":1786521446000},"page":"693","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The State-of-the Art of Personalized Vaccines for Non-Communicable Diseases: A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5308-7072","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mario","family":"Caldarelli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Medicine and Surgery, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli, Istituto di Ricerca e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8659-3091","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pierluigi","family":"Rio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Medicine and Surgery, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli, Istituto di Ricerca e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carlotta","family":"Renna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Medicine and Surgery, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli, Istituto di Ricerca e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Marrone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Medicine and Surgery, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli, Istituto di Ricerca e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giulia","family":"Guazzarotti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Medicine and Surgery, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli, Istituto di Ricerca e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6230-1779","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Gasbarrini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Medicine and Surgery, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli, Istituto di Ricerca e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giovanni","family":"Gambassi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Medicine and Surgery, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli, Istituto di Ricerca e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5378-8442","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rossella","family":"Cianci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Medicine and Surgery, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli, Istituto di Ricerca e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Magoola, M., and Niazi, S.K. (2025). Current Progress and Future Perspectives of RNA-Based Cancer Vaccines: A 2025 Update. 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