{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,6]],"date-time":"2026-06-06T03:53:17Z","timestamp":1780717997680,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,25]],"date-time":"2019-07-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1564012800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Rabies is preventable through vaccination, but the need to mount annual canine vaccination campaigns presents major challenges in rabies control and prevention. The development of a rabies vaccine that ensures lifelong immunity and animal population management in one dose could be extremely advantageous. A nonsurgical alternative to spay\/neuter is a high priority for animal welfare, but irreversible infertility in one dose has not been achieved. Towards this goal, we developed a rabies virus-vectored immunocontraceptive vaccine ERA-2GnRH, which protected against rabies virus challenge and induced &gt;80% infertility in mice after three doses in a live, liquid-vaccine formulation (Wu et al., 2014). To improve safety and use, we formulated an inactivated vaccine in a thermo-responsive chitosan hydrogel for one-dose delivery and studied the immune responses in mice. The hydrogel did not cause any injection site reactions, and the killed ERA-2GnRH vaccine induced high and persistent rabies virus neutralizing antibodies (rVNA) in mice. The rVNA in the hydrogel group reached an average of 327.40 IU\/mL, more than 200 times higher than the liquid vaccine alone. The Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) antibodies were also present and lasted longer in the hydrogel group, but did not prevent fertility in mice, reflecting a possible threshold level of GnRH antibodies for contraception. In conclusion, the hydrogel facilitated a high and long-lasting immunity, and ERA-2GnRH is a promising dual vaccine candidate. Future studies will focus on rabies protection in target species and improving the anti-GnRH response.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines7030073","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,26]],"date-time":"2019-07-26T08:45:39Z","timestamp":1564130739000},"page":"73","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Inactivated Rabies Virus-Vectored Immunocontraceptive Vaccine in a Thermo-Responsive Hydrogel Induces High and Persistent Antibodies against Rabies, but Insufficient Antibodies against Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone for Contraception"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Xianfu","family":"Wu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch\/DHCPP\/NCEZID, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yong","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch\/DHCPP\/NCEZID, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"},{"name":"ARK Temporary Staffing, Lawrenceville, GA 30046, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3799-9036","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chantal","family":"Kling","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch\/DHCPP\/NCEZID, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"},{"name":"Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laurie","family":"Seigler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch\/DHCPP\/NCEZID, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"},{"name":"ARK Temporary Staffing, Lawrenceville, GA 30046, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nadia F.","family":"Gallardo-Romero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch\/DHCPP\/NCEZID, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Brock E.","family":"Martin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch\/DHCPP\/NCEZID, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Todd G.","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch\/DHCPP\/NCEZID, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Victoria A.","family":"Olson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch\/DHCPP\/NCEZID, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2019, June 04). 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