{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T19:04:24Z","timestamp":1790622264968,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":107,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,2]],"date-time":"2019-10-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1569974400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The family Arenaviridae contains several pathogens of major clinical importance. The Old World (OW) arenavirus Lassa virus is endemic in West Africa and is estimated to cause up to 300,000 infections each year. The New World (NW) arenaviruses Jun\u00edn and Machupo periodically cause hemorrhagic fever outbreaks in South America. While these arenaviruses are highly pathogenic in humans, recent evidence indicates that pathogenic OW and NW arenaviruses interact with the host immune system differently, which may have differential impacts on viral pathogenesis. Severe Lassa fever cases are characterized by profound immunosuppression. In contrast, pathogenic NW arenavirus infections are accompanied by elevated levels of Type I interferon and pro-inflammatory cytokines. This review aims to summarize recent findings about interactions of these pathogenic arenaviruses with the innate immune machinery and the subsequent effects on adaptive immunity, which may inform the development of vaccines and therapeutics against arenavirus infections.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines7040138","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,3]],"date-time":"2019-10-03T03:41:27Z","timestamp":1570074087000},"page":"138","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["Differential Immune Responses to Hemorrhagic Fever-Causing Arenaviruses"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Emily","family":"Mantlo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX 77555, USA"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX 77555, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Slobodan","family":"Paessler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX 77555, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cheng","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX 77555, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Knipe, H.P., and Howley, P.M. (2007). Arenaviridae: The viruses and their replication. Fields Virology, Wolter Kluwer Lippincott Williams & Wilkins."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-018-04127-3","article-title":"Taxonomy of the order bunyavirales: Second update 2018","volume":"164","author":"Maes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0012-7","article-title":"The evolutionary history of vertebrate rna viruses","volume":"556","author":"Shi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1702(00)00222-7","article-title":"Arenavirus nucleocapsid protein displays a transcriptional antitermination activity in vivo","volume":"73","author":"Tortorici","year":"2001","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7659","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.68.11.7659-7664.1994","article-title":"Sequence heterogeneity in the termini of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus genomic and antigenomic rnas","volume":"68","author":"Meyer","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Virol"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20069","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1007152107","article-title":"Assembly of a functional machupo virus polymerase complex","volume":"107","author":"Kranzusch","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6822(79)90042-4","article-title":"Protein structure of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus: Evidence for a cell-associated precursor of the virion glycopeptides","volume":"99","author":"Buchmeier","year":"1979","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12701","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.221447598","article-title":"The lassa virus glycoprotein precursor gp-c is proteolytically processed by subtilase ski-1\/s1p","volume":"98","author":"Lenz","year":"2001","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10783","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.78.19.10783-10792.2004","article-title":"The signal peptide of the jun\u00edn arenavirus envelope glycoprotein is myristoylated and forms an essential subunit of the mature g1-g2 complex","volume":"78","author":"York","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5189","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00208-06","article-title":"Role of the stable signal peptide and cytoplasmic domain of g2 in regulating intracellular transport of the jun\u00edn virus envelope glycoprotein complex","volume":"80","author":"Agnihothram","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12978","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2133782100","article-title":"The small ring finger protein z drives arenavirus budding: Implications for antiviral strategies","volume":"100","author":"Perez","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1997.8722","article-title":"Completion of the lassa fever virus sequence and identification of a ring finger open reading frame at the l rna 5\u2019 end","volume":"235","author":"Djavani","year":"1997","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10700","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.77.19.10700-10705.2003","article-title":"Lassa virus z protein is a matrix protein and sufficient for the release of virus-like particles [corrected]","volume":"77","author":"Strecker","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1159\/000148956","article-title":"Interrelationships among arenaviruses measured by indirect immunofluorescence","volume":"9","author":"Wolff","year":"1978","journal-title":"Intervirology"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1851","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-015-2418-y","article-title":"Past, present, and future of arenavirus taxonomy","volume":"160","author":"Radoshitzky","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.32.2.872-880.1981","article-title":"Pathogenesis of a pichinde virus strain adapted to produce lethal infections in guinea pigs","volume":"32","author":"Jahrling","year":"1981","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1993.49.10","article-title":"Pathogenesis of pichinde virus infection in strain 13 guinea pigs: An immunocytochemical, virologic, and clinical chemistry study","volume":"49","author":"Connolly","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1089\/15303660160025912","article-title":"Lassa fever in guinea: Ii. Distribution and prevalence of lassa virus infection in small mammals","volume":"1","author":"Demby","year":"2001","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gryseels, S., Baird, S.J., Borremans, B., Makundi, R., Leirs, H., and Go\u00fcy de Bellocq, J. (2017). When viruses don\u2019t go viral: The importance of host phylogeographic structure in the spatial spread of arenaviruses. PLoS Pathog., 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1006073"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"69","article-title":"Epidemiology and control of lassa fever","volume":"134","author":"McCormick","year":"1987","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1973.22.773","article-title":"A hospital epidemic of lassa fever in zorzor, liberia, march-april 1972","volume":"22","author":"Monath","year":"1973","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9343(66)90103-3","article-title":"Bolivian hemorrhagic fever. A report of four cases","volume":"40","author":"Stinebaugh","year":"1966","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/155.3.437","article-title":"A prospective study of the epidemiology and ecology of lassa fever","volume":"155","author":"McCormick","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1080\/10408360490497456","article-title":"Lassa virus","volume":"41","author":"Gunther","year":"2004","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Clin. Lab. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2007.10.010","article-title":"Treatment of argentine hemorrhagic fever","volume":"78","author":"Enria","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antiviral. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2014.02.007","article-title":"Epidemiology and pathogenesis of bolivian hemorrhagic fever","volume":"5","author":"Patterson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"23","article-title":"Lassa fever: Central nervous system manifestations","volume":"1","author":"Buchmeier","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Trop. Geo. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mateer, E.J., Huang, C., Shehu, N.Y., and Paessler, S. (2018). Lassa fever-induced sensorineural hearing loss: A neglected public health and social burden. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006187"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2093","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1990.03450160063030","article-title":"Acute sensorineural deafness in lassa fever","volume":"264","author":"Cummins","year":"1990","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2031","DOI":"10.3390\/v4102031","article-title":"Pathogenesis of lassa fever","volume":"4","author":"Yun","year":"2012","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1713","DOI":"10.1086\/320722","article-title":"Low levels of interleukin-8 and interferon-inducible protein-10 in serum are associated with fatal infections in acute lassa fever","volume":"183","author":"Mahanty","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/149.3.428","article-title":"Endogenous interferon in argentine hemorrhagic fever","volume":"149","author":"Levis","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1089\/jir.1985.5.383","article-title":"Correlation between endogenous interferon and the clinical evolution of patients with argentine hemorrhagic fever","volume":"5","author":"Levis","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Interferon. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pozner, R.G., Ure, A.E., Jaquenod de Giusti, C., D\u2019Atri, L.P., Italiano, J.E., Torres, O., Romanowski, V., Schattner, M., and G\u00f3mez, R.M. (2010). Jun\u00edn virus infection of human hematopoietic progenitors impairs in vitro proplatelet formation and platelet release via a bystander effect involving type i ifn signaling. PLoS Pathog., 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000847"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2861","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.172.5.2861","article-title":"Lassa virus infection of human dendritic cells and macrophages is productive but fails to activate cells","volume":"172","author":"Baize","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schaeffer, J., Carnec, X., Reynard, S., Mateo, M., Picard, C., Pietrosemoli, N., Dillies, M.A., and Baize, S. (2018). Lassa virus activates myeloid dendritic cells but suppresses their ability to stimulate t cells. PLoS Pathog., 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1007430"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10516","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.78.19.10516-10524.2004","article-title":"Human macrophages, but not dendritic cells, are activated and produce alpha\/beta interferons in response to mopeia virus infection","volume":"78","author":"Pannetier","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Virol"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schaeffer, J., Reynard, S., Carnec, X., Pietrosemoli, N., Dillies, M.A., and Baize, S. (2019). Non-pathogenic mopeia virus induces more robust activation of plasmacytoid dendritic cells than lassa virus. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11030287"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1862","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jix201","article-title":"A case of human lassa virus infection with robust acute t-cell activation and long-term virus-specific t-cell responses","volume":"215","author":"McElroy","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2016.138","article-title":"Immunobiology of ebola and lassa virus infections","volume":"17","author":"Prescott","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(85)90388-8","article-title":"Endemic lassa fever in liberia. Iv. Selection of optimally effective plasma for treatment by passive immunization","volume":"79","author":"Jahrling","year":"1985","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2317","DOI":"10.3390\/v4102317","article-title":"Jun\u00edn virus pathogenesis and virus replication","volume":"4","author":"Grant","year":"2012","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1216","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(79)92335-3","article-title":"Efficacy of immune plasma in treatment of argentine haemorrhagic fever and association between treatment and a late neurological syndrome","volume":"2","author":"Maiztegui","year":"1979","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-8-205","article-title":"Pathogenesis of lassa fever in cynomolgus macaques","volume":"8","author":"Hensley","year":"2011","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5890","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01948-08","article-title":"Early and strong immune responses are associated with control of viral replication and recovery in lassa virus-infected cynomolgus monkeys","volume":"83","author":"Baize","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Virol"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oestereich, L., L\u00fcdtke, A., Ruibal, P., Pallasch, E., Kerber, R., Rieger, T., Wurr, S., Bockholt, S., P\u00e9rez-Gir\u00f3n, J.V., and Krasemann, S. (2016). Chimeric mice with competent hematopoietic immunity reproduce key features of severe lassa fever. PLoS Pathog, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005656"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.1890230110","article-title":"Interferon response in the guinea pig infected with jun\u00edn virus","volume":"23","author":"Dejean","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"23","article-title":"Aerosol infection of rhesus macaques with junin virus","volume":"33","author":"Kenyon","year":"1992","journal-title":"Intervirology"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.37.2.771-778.1982","article-title":"Pathogenesis of lassa virus infection in guinea pigs","volume":"37","author":"Jahrling","year":"1982","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.53.1.75-80.1985","article-title":"Effect of immunosuppression on experimental argentine hemorrhagic fever in guinea pigs","volume":"53","author":"Kenyon","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1177\/0300985814540544","article-title":"Pathology of experimental machupo virus infection, chicava strain, in cynomolgus macaques (macaca fascicularis) by intramuscular and aerosol exposure","volume":"52","author":"Bell","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1177\/0300985815588609","article-title":"Pathogenesis of bolivian hemorrhagic fever in guinea pigs","volume":"53","author":"Bell","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02122446","article-title":"Effect of ribavirin and immune serum on junin virus-infected primates","volume":"175","author":"Weissenbacher","year":"1986","journal-title":"Med. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2018.00251","article-title":"Visualization of double-stranded rna colocalizing with pattern recognition receptors in arenavirus infected cells","volume":"8","author":"Mateer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2900","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.05738-11","article-title":"Sensing of RNA viruses: A review of innate immune receptors involved in recognizing rna virus invasion","volume":"86","author":"Jensen","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5213","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.03370-13","article-title":"Mechanisms of rig-i-like receptor activation and manipulation by viral pathogens","volume":"88","author":"Gack","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coi.2017.12.002","article-title":"Regulation of mavs activation through post-translational modifications","volume":"50","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Habjan, M., Andersson, I., Klingstr\u00f6m, J., Sch\u00fcmann, M., Martin, A., Zimmermann, P., Wagner, V., Pichlmair, A., Schneider, U., and M\u00fchlberger, E. (2008). Processing of genome 5\u2019 termini as a strategy of negative-strand RNA viruses to avoid rig-i-dependent interferon induction. PLoS ONE, 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0002032"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7079","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00526-15","article-title":"Highly pathogenic new world and old world human arenaviruses induce distinct interferon responses in human cells","volume":"89","author":"Huang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, C., Kolokoltsova, O.A., Yun, N.E., Seregin, A.V., Poussard, A.L., Walker, A.G., Brasier, A.R., Zhao, Y., Tian, B., and de la Torre, J.C. (2012). Jun\u00edn virus infection activates the type i interferon pathway in a rig-i-dependent manner. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001659"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moreno, H., Moller, R., Fedeli, C., Gerold, G., and Kunz, S. (2019). Comparison of the innate immune responses to pathogenic and nonpathogenic clade b new world arenaviruses. J. Virol., 93.","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00148-19"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mateer, E., Paessler, S., and Huang, C. (2019). Confocal imaging of double-stranded rna and pattern recognition receptors in negative-sense rna virus infection. J. Vis. Exp., 143.","DOI":"10.3791\/59095-v"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biochi.2007.03.001","article-title":"The dsrna protein kinase pkr: Virus and cell control","volume":"89","author":"Meurs","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biochimie"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2314","article-title":"Interferon-inducible antiviral effectors","volume":"8","author":"Sadler","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, C., Kolokoltsova, O.A., Mateer, E.J., Koma, T., and Paessler, S. (2017). Highly pathogenic new world arenavirus infection activates the pattern recognition receptor protein kinase r without attenuating virus replication in human cells. J. Virol., 91.","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01090-17"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"King, B.R., Hershkowitz, D., Eisenhauer, P.L., Weir, M.E., Ziegler, C.M., Russo, J., Bruce, E.A., Ballif, B.A., and Botten, J. (2017). A map of the arenavirus nucleoprotein-host protein interactome reveals that jun\u00edn virus selectively impairs the antiviral activity of double-stranded rna-activated protein kinase (pkr). J. Virol., 91.","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00763-17"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1038\/nature09605","article-title":"Cap binding and immune evasion revealed by lassa nucleoprotein structure","volume":"468","author":"Qi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2396","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1016404108","article-title":"Structure of the lassa virus nucleoprotein reveals a dsrna-specific 3\u2019 to 5\u2019 exonuclease activity essential for immune suppression","volume":"108","author":"Hastie","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16949","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M112.420521","article-title":"Structures of arenaviral nucleoproteins with triphosphate dsrna reveal a unique mechanism of immune suppression","volume":"288","author":"Jiang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6595","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00009-15","article-title":"In vitro and in vivo characterizations of pichinde viral nucleoprotein exoribonuclease functions","volume":"89","author":"Huang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Virol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carnec, X., Mateo, M., Page, A., Reynard, S., Hortion, J., Picard, C., Yekwa, E., Barrot, L., Barron, S., and Vallve, A. (2018). A vaccine platform against arenaviruses based on a recombinant hyperattenuated mopeia virus expressing heterologous glycoproteins. J. Virol., 92.","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02230-17"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7728","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00187-12","article-title":"Arenavirus nucleoprotein targets interferon regulatory factor-activating kinase ikk\u03b5","volume":"86","author":"Pythoud","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8185","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.07240-11","article-title":"Arenavirus nucleoproteins prevent activation of nuclear factor kappa b","volume":"86","author":"Rodrigo","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shao, J., Huang, Q., Liu, X., Di, D., Liang, Y., and Ly, H. (2018). Arenaviral nucleoproteins suppress pact-induced augmentation of rig-i function to inhibit type i interferon production. J. Virol., 92.","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00482-18"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2011.03.007","article-title":"The double-stranded RNA-binding protein pact functions as a cellular activator of rig-i to facilitate innate antiviral response","volume":"9","author":"Kok","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2013.06.010","article-title":"Mutual antagonism between the ebola virus vp35 protein and the rig-i activator pact determines infection outcome","volume":"14","author":"Luthra","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9038","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00830-14","article-title":"Quantitative proteomic analysis of the influenza a virus nonstructural proteins ns1 and ns2 during natural cell infection identifies pact as an ns1 target protein and antiviral host factor","volume":"88","author":"Tawaratsumida","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4866","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.03649-13","article-title":"Middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus 4a protein is a double-stranded rna-binding protein that suppresses pact-induced activation of rig-i and mda5 in the innate antiviral response","volume":"88","author":"Siu","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13141","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02564-13","article-title":"Suppression of pact-induced type i interferon production by herpes simplex virus 1 us11 protein","volume":"87","author":"Kew","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4379","DOI":"10.1093\/emboj\/17.15.4379","article-title":"Pact, a protein activator of the interferon-induced protein kinase, pkr","volume":"17","author":"Patel","year":"1998","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Loureiro, M.E., Zorzetto-Fernandes, A.L., Radoshitzky, S., Chi, X., Dallari, S., Marooki, N., L\u00e8ger, P., Foscaldi, S., Harjono, V., and Sharma, S. (2018). Ddx3 suppresses type i interferons and favors viral replication during arenavirus infection. PLoS Pathog., 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1007125"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2944","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.03349-14","article-title":"The z proteins of pathogenic but not nonpathogenic arenaviruses inhibit rig-i-like receptor-dependent interferon production","volume":"89","author":"Xing","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1785","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01362-09","article-title":"Z proteins of new world arenaviruses bind rig-i and interfere with type i interferon induction","volume":"84","author":"Fan","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9452","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00155-10","article-title":"Induction and inhibition of type i interferon responses by distinct components of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus","volume":"84","author":"Zhou","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-018-0003-6","article-title":"Autophagy during viral infection\u2014A double-edged sword","volume":"16","author":"Choi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rold\u00e1n, J.S., Candurra, N.A., Colombo, M.I., and Delgui, L.R. (2019). Jun\u00edn virus promotes autophagy to facilitate the virus life cycle. J. Virol., 93.","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02307-18"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perez Vidakovics, M.L.A., Ure, A.E., Arr\u00edas, P.N., Romanowski, V., and G\u00f3mez, R.M. (2019). Jun\u00edn virus induces autophagy in human a549 cells. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0218730"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baillet, N., Krieger, S., Journeaux, A., Caro, V., Tangy, F., Vidalain, P.O., and Baize, S. (2019). Autophagy promotes infectious particle production of mopeia and lassa viruses. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11030293"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14050","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0704014104","article-title":"The atg5 atg12 conjugate associates with innate antiviral immune responses","volume":"104","author":"Jounai","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.4161\/auto.5055","article-title":"The non-canonical role of atg family members as suppressors of innate antiviral immune signaling","volume":"4","author":"Takeshita","year":"2008","journal-title":"Autophagy"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1682","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2019.05.026","article-title":"Autophagy-independent functions of the autophagy machinery","volume":"177","author":"Galluzzi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1198687","article-title":"Innate or adaptive immunity? The example of natural killer cells","volume":"331","author":"Vivier","year":"2011","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1822","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201142099","article-title":"Nk cells are strongly activated by lassa and mopeia virus-infected human macrophages in vitro but do not mediate virus suppression","volume":"42","author":"Russier","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13811","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01908-14","article-title":"The exonuclease domain of lassa virus nucleoprotein is involved in antigen-presenting-cell-mediated nk cell responses","volume":"88","author":"Russier","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2019.01.048","article-title":"Hla-c-restricted viral epitopes are associated with an escape mechanism from kir2dl2","volume":"40","author":"Wauquier","year":"2019","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.4161\/hv.7.6.15198","article-title":"Argentine hemorrhagic fever vaccines","volume":"7","author":"Ambrosio","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccin."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1290","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02615-15","article-title":"Machupo virus expressing gpc of the candid#1 vaccine strain of junin virus is highly attenuated and immunogenic","volume":"90","author":"Koma","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2008.07.057","article-title":"Safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy of the ml29 reassortant vaccine for lassa fever in small non-human primates","volume":"26","author":"Lukashevich","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13934","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.22.13934-13942.2005","article-title":"A live attenuated vaccine for lassa fever made by reassortment of lassa and mopeia viruses","volume":"79","author":"Lukashevich","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Geisbert, T.W., Jones, S., Fritz, E.A., Shurtleff, A.C., Geisbert, J.B., Liebscher, R., Grolla, A., Stroher, U., Fernando, L., and Daddario, K.M. (2005). Development of a new vaccine for the prevention of lassa fever. PLoS Med., 2.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0020183"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6777","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.74.15.6777-6783.2000","article-title":"Effective vaccine for lassa fever","volume":"74","author":"Hutwagner","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1863-2378.2011.01447.x","article-title":"Effect of ribavirin on junin virus infection in guinea pigs","volume":"59","author":"Salazar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Zoonoses Public Health"},{"key":"ref_103","first-page":"723","article-title":"Protection of monkeys against machupo virus by the passive administration of bolivian haemorrhagic fever immunoglobulin (human origin)","volume":"52","author":"Eddy","year":"1975","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cashman, K.A., Wilkinson, E.R., Zeng, X., Cardile, A.P., Facemire, P.R., Bell, T.M., Bearss, J.J., Shaia, C.I., and Schmaljohn, C.S. (2018). Immune-mediated systemic vasculitis as the proposed cause of sudden-onset sensorineural hearing loss following lassa virus exposure in cynomolgus macaques. MBio, 9.","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01896-18"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2920","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02948-15","article-title":"Animal model of sensorineural hearing loss associated with lassa virus infection","volume":"90","author":"Yun","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2505.181254","article-title":"Lassa virus targeting of anterior uvea and endothelium of cornea and conjunctiva in eye of guinea pig model","volume":"25","author":"Gary","year":"2019","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_107","first-page":"1818","article-title":"Persistence of lassa virus associated with severe systemic arteritis in convalescing guinea pigs (cavia porcellus)","volume":"219","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."}],"container-title":["Vaccines"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-393X\/7\/4\/138\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:27:08Z","timestamp":1760189228000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-393X\/7\/4\/138"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,2]]},"references-count":107,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12]]}},"alternative-id":["vaccines7040138"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/vaccines7040138","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-393X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-393X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,2]]}}}