{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,29]],"date-time":"2025-10-29T06:22:11Z","timestamp":1761718931514,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,23]],"date-time":"2020-05-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1590192000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A majority of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) develops in the setting of persistent chronic inflammation as immunological mechanisms have been shown to play a vital role in the initiation, growth and progression of tumours. The index review has been intended to highlight ongoing immunological changes in the hepatic parenchyma responsible for the genesis and progression of HCC. The in-situ vaccine effect of radiofrequency (RF) is through generation tumour-associated antigens (TAAs), following necrosis and apoptosis of tumour cells, which not only re-activates the antitumour immune response but can also act in synergism with checkpoint inhibitors to generate a superlative effect with intent to treat primary cancer and distant metastasis. An improved understanding of oncogenic responses of immune cells and their integration into signaling pathways of the tumour microenvironment will help in modulating the antitumour immune response. Finally, we analyzed contemporary literature and summarised the recent advances made in the field of targeted immunotherapy involving checkpoint inhibitors along with RF application with the intent to reinstate antitumour immunity and outline future directives in very early and early stages of HCC.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines8020247","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,25]],"date-time":"2020-05-25T06:43:40Z","timestamp":1590389020000},"page":"247","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Immunological Basis of Genesis of Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Unique Challenges and Potential Opportunities through Immunomodulation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Kumar","family":"Jayant","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7H, UK"},{"name":"Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, London W12 0HS, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nagy","family":"Habib","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, London W12 0HS, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6375-8714","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kai W.","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, London W12 0HS, UK"},{"name":"Department of Surgery &amp; Hepatitis Research Center, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei 100, Taiwan"},{"name":"Centre of Mini-invasive Interventional Oncology, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei 100, Taiwan"},{"name":"Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei 100, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9941-0883","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mauro","family":"Podda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"General, Emergency and Robotic Surgery Unit, San Francesco Hospital, 08100 Nuoro NU, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jane","family":"Warwick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7H, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2231-3062","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ramesh","family":"Arasaradnam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7H, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.3322\/caac.21492","article-title":"Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries","volume":"68","author":"Bray","year":"2018","journal-title":"CA A Cancer J. 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