{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T07:07:41Z","timestamp":1789542461567,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":212,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,17]],"date-time":"2021-01-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1610841600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The current pandemic has highlighted the ever-increasing risk of human to human spread of zoonotic pathogens. A number of medically-relevant zoonotic pathogens are negative-strand RNA viruses (NSVs). NSVs are derived from different virus families. Examples like Ebola are known for causing severe symptoms and high mortality rates. Some, like influenza, are known for their ease of person-to-person transmission and lack of pre-existing immunity, enabling rapid spread across many countries around the globe. Containment of outbreaks of NSVs can be difficult owing to their unpredictability and the absence of effective control measures, such as vaccines and antiviral therapeutics. In addition, there remains a lack of essential knowledge of the host\u2013pathogen response that are induced by NSVs, particularly of the immune responses that provide protection. Vaccines are the most effective method for preventing infectious diseases. In fact, in the event of a pandemic, appropriate vaccine design and speed of vaccine supply is the most critical factor in protecting the population, as vaccination is the only sustainable defense. Vaccines need to be safe, efficient, and cost-effective, which is influenced by our understanding of the host\u2013pathogen interface. Additionally, some of the major challenges of vaccines are the establishment of a long-lasting immunity offering cross protection to emerging strains. Although many NSVs are controlled through immunisations, for some, vaccine design has failed or efficacy has proven unreliable. The key behind designing a successful vaccine is understanding the host\u2013pathogen interaction and the host immune response towards NSVs. In this paper, we review the recent research in vaccine design against NSVs and explore the immune responses induced by these viruses. The generation of a robust and integrated approach to development capability and vaccine manufacture can collaboratively support the management of outbreaking NSV disease health risks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9010059","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,21]],"date-time":"2021-01-21T02:36:05Z","timestamp":1611196565000},"page":"59","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Investigating the Interaction between Negative Strand RNA Viruses and Their Hosts for Enhanced Vaccine Development and Production"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0055-6212","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kostlend","family":"Mara","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIRO Health &amp; Biosecurity, Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, Geelong, Vic 3220, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meiling","family":"Dai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIRO Health &amp; Biosecurity, Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, Geelong, Vic 3220, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aaron M.","family":"Brice","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIRO Health &amp; Biosecurity, Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, Geelong, Vic 3220, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0745-7903","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marina R.","family":"Alexander","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIRO Health &amp; Biosecurity, Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, Geelong, Vic 3220, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2093-9678","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leon","family":"Tribolet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIRO Health &amp; Biosecurity, Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, Geelong, Vic 3220, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel S.","family":"Layton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIRO Health &amp; Biosecurity, Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, Geelong, Vic 3220, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrew G. 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