{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T01:46:48Z","timestamp":1760233608539,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,3]],"date-time":"2021-02-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1612310400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The vaccination for the novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) is undergoing its final stages of analysis and testing. It is an impressive feat under the circumstances that we are on the verge of a potential breakthrough vaccination. This will help reduce the stress for millions of people around the globe, helping to restore worldwide normalcy. In this review, the analysis looks into how the new branch of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) came into the forefront of the world like a pandemic. This review will break down the details of what COVID-19 is, the viral family it belongs to and its background of how this family of viruses alters bodily functions by attacking vital human respiratory organs, the circulatory system, the central nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract. This review also looks at the process a new drug analogue undergoes, from (i) being a promising lead compound to (ii) being released into the market, from the drug development and discovery stage right through to FDA approval and aftermarket research. This review also addresses viable reasoning as to why the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine may have taken much less time than normal in order for it to be released for use.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9020120","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,3]],"date-time":"2021-02-03T20:31:51Z","timestamp":1612384311000},"page":"120","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["COVID-19 Vaccination: From Interesting Agent to the Patient"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8495-3076","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anis","family":"Daou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Pharmaceutical Sciences Department, College of Pharmacy, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha P.O. Box 2713, Qatar"},{"name":"Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Research Unit, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha P.O. Box 2713, Qatar"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Review of the clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)","volume":"4","author":"Jiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Gen. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1148\/radiol.2020200370","article-title":"Time Course of Lung Changes at Chest CT during Recovery from Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)","volume":"295","author":"Pan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2001017","article-title":"A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019","volume":"382","author":"Zhu","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Eng. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Davies, N.G., Barnard, R.C., Jarvis, C.I., Kucharski, A.J., Munday, J., Pearson, C.A.B., Russell, T.W., Tully, D.C., Abbott, S., and Gimma, A. (2020, December 29). Estimated Transmissibility and Severity of Novel SARS-CoV-2 Variant of Concern 202012\/01 in England. Available online: https:\/\/cmmid.github.io\/topics\/covid19\/reports\/uk-novel-variant\/2020_12_23_Transmissibility_and_severity_of_VOC_202012_01_in_England.pdf."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30183-5","article-title":"Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China","volume":"395","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.7326\/M20-3012","article-title":"Prevalence of Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infection","volume":"173","author":"Oran","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"World Health Organization (WHO) (2020, December 29). Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19). Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/emergencies\/diseases\/novel-coronavirus-2019\/question-and-answers-hub\/q-a-detail\/coronavirus-disease-covid-19#:~:text=symptoms."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-020-00646-x","article-title":"Epidemiology, causes, clinical manifestation and diagnosis, prevention and control of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) during the early outbreak period: A scoping review","volume":"9","author":"Adhikari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Poverty"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1831","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2020.02.055","article-title":"Evidence for Gastrointestinal Infection of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"158","author":"Xiao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2020, November 29). Consensus Document on the Epidemiology of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS). Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/csr\/sars\/WHOconsensus.pdf?ua=1."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-2438-7_1","article-title":"Fehr and Stanley Perlman; Coronaviruses: An Overview of Their Replication and Pathogenesis","volume":"1282","author":"Anthony","year":"2015","journal-title":"Coronaviruses"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1007\/s12098-020-03263-6","article-title":"A Review of Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19)","volume":"87","author":"Singhal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Indian J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Richman, D., Whitley, R.J., and Hayden, F.G. (2009). Infectious Disease in the Ageing: A Clinical Handbook, Springer. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/jtm\/taaa021","article-title":"The reproductive number of COVID-19 is higher compared to SARS coronavirus","volume":"27","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Travel Med."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1","article-title":"Novel Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) Pandemic Outbreak: A Comprehensive Review of the Current Literature","volume":"20","author":"Ullah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vacunas"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Corley, J.U.S. (2020, November 29). Government Response To COVID-19 Was Slow. But How Does It Compare To Other Countries?. Available online: https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/jacquelyncorley\/2020\/04\/10\/us-government-response-to-covid-19-was-slow-but-how-does-it-compare-to-other-countries\/?sh=515dc7a46dc2."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"(2020, November 29). Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Advice for the Public. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/emergencies\/diseases\/novel-coronavirus-2019\/advice-for-public."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100037","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sintl.2020.100037","article-title":"Study and overview of the novel corona virus disease (COVID-19)","volume":"1","author":"Agarwal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sens. Int."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-virology-110615-042301","article-title":"Structure, Function, and Evolution of Coronavirus Spike Proteins","volume":"3","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Virol."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"1","article-title":"Genotype and phenotype of COVID-19: Their roles in pathogenesis","volume":"52","author":"Mousavizadeh","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"59","article-title":"The Nonstructural Proteins Directing Coronavirus RNA Synthesis and Processing","volume":"96","author":"Snijder","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2020.03.005","article-title":"COVID-19 infection: Origin, transmission, and characteristics of human coronaviruses","volume":"24","author":"Shereen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105924","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2020.105924","article-title":"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19): The epidemic and the challenges","volume":"55","author":"Lai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01695-20","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01695-20","article-title":"Challenges and Controversies to Testing for COVID-19","volume":"58","author":"Binnicker","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"IFRC (2021, January 01). COVID-19 Symptoms. Available online: https:\/\/media.ifrc.org\/ifrc\/."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Williams, S. (2020, November 29). A Brief History of Human Coronaviruses. Available online: https:\/\/www.the-scientist.com\/news-opinion\/a-brief-history-of-human-coronaviruses-67600."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S88","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1143","article-title":"Severe acute respiratory syndrome","volume":"10","author":"Peiris","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imlet.2004.06.014","article-title":"Immunogenicity of SARS inactivated vaccine in BALB\/c mice","volume":"95","author":"Xiong","year":"2004","journal-title":"Immunol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2004.10.052","article-title":"Inactivated SARS-CoV vaccine elicits high titers of spike protein-specific antibodies that block receptor binding and virus entry","volume":"325","author":"He","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"924","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2004.07.031","article-title":"Intranasal immunization with inactivated SARS-CoV (SARS-associated coronavirus) induced local and serum antibodies in mice","volume":"23","author":"Qu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02463","article-title":"A DNA vaccine induces SARS coronavirus neutralization and protective immunity in mice","volume":"428","author":"Yang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1906","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.3.1906-1910.2005","article-title":"Identification of Two Neutralizing Regions on the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Spike Glycoprotein Produced from the Mammalian Expression System","volume":"79","author":"Wang","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3289","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.6.3289-3296.2005","article-title":"Amino Acids 1055 to 1192 in the S2 Region of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus S Protein Induce Neutralizing Antibodies: Implications for the Development of Vaccines and Antiviral Agents","volume":"79","author":"Keng","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3401","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.6.3401-3408.2005","article-title":"B-Cell Responses in Patients Who Have Recovered from Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Target a Dominant Site in the S2 Domain of the Surface Spike Glycoprotein","volume":"79","author":"Zhong","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6641","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0401939101","article-title":"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus spike protein expressed by attenuated vaccinia virus protectively immunizes mice","volume":"101","author":"Bisht","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2122","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)16501-X","article-title":"Mucosal immunisation of African green monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) with an attenuated parainfluenza virus expressing the SARS coronavirus spike protein for the prevention of SARS","volume":"363","author":"Bukreyev","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1016","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1107.050219","article-title":"SARS Vaccine Development","volume":"11","author":"Jiang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2005.01.034","article-title":"Identification of a critical neutralization determinant of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-associated coronavirus: Importance for designing SARS vaccines","volume":"334","author":"He","year":"2005","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2678","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.5.2678-2688.2005","article-title":"Recombinant Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara Expressing the Spike Glycoprotein of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Induces Protective Neutralizing Antibodies Primarily Targeting the Receptor Binding Region","volume":"79","author":"Chen","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2832","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2006.10.031","article-title":"Receptor-binding domain of SARS-CoV spike protein induces long-term protective immunity in an animal model","volume":"25","author":"Du","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4908","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.174.8.4908","article-title":"Receptor-Binding Domain of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Spike Protein Contains Multiple Conformation-Dependent Epitopes that Induce Highly Potent Neutralizing Antibodies","volume":"174","author":"He","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02145","article-title":"Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is a functional receptor for the SARS coronavirus","volume":"426","author":"Li","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3197","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.C300520200","article-title":"A 193-Amino Acid Fragment of the SARS Coronavirus S Protein Efficiently Binds Angiotensin-converting Enzyme 2","volume":"279","author":"Wong","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2003.11.054","article-title":"The SARS-CoV S glycoprotein: Expression and functional characterization","volume":"312","author":"Xiao","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.1586\/14760584.2016.1167603","article-title":"Vaccines for the prevention against the threat of MERS-CoV","volume":"15","author":"Du","year":"2017","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aad1283","article-title":"An orthopoxvirus-based vaccine reduces virus excretion after MERS-CoV infection in dromedary camels","volume":"351","author":"Haagmans","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5975","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2014.08.058","article-title":"Immunogenicity of an adenoviral-based Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus vaccine in BALB\/c mice","volume":"32","author":"Kim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11950","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01672-13","article-title":"Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Spike Protein Delivered by Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara Efficiently Induces Virus-Neutralizing Antibodies","volume":"87","author":"Song","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8651","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00614-15","article-title":"Protective Efficacy of Recombinant Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara Delivering Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Spike Glycoprotein","volume":"89","author":"Volz","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.12462","article-title":"Systemic and mucosal immunity in mice elicited by a single immunization with human adenovirus type 5 or 41 vector-based vaccines carrying the spike protein of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus","volume":"145","author":"Guo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301ra132","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aac7462","article-title":"A synthetic consensus anti\u2013spike protein DNA vaccine induces protective immunity against Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in nonhuman primates","volume":"7","author":"Muthumani","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2014.02.004","article-title":"Intranasal vaccination with recombinant receptor-binding domain of MERS-CoV spike protein induces much stronger local mucosal immune responses than subcutaneous immunization: Implication for designing novel mucosal MERS vaccines","volume":"32","author":"Ma","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2014.08.086","article-title":"Searching for an ideal vaccine candidate among different MERS coronavirus receptor-binding fragments\u2014The importance of immunofocusing in subunit vaccine design","volume":"32","author":"Ma","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lan, J., Deng, Y., Chen, H., Lu, G., Wang, W., Guo, X., Lu, Z., Gao, G.F., and Tan, W. (2014). Tailoring Subunit Vaccine Immunity with Adjuvant Combinations and Delivery Routes Using the Middle East Respiratory Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) Receptor-Binding Domain as an Antigen. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0112602"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7712","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms8712","article-title":"Evaluation of candidate vaccine approaches for MERS-CoV","volume":"6","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Du, L., Kou, Z., Ma, C., Tao, X., Wang, L., Zhao, G., Chen, Y., Yu, F., Tseng, C.-T.K., and Zhou, Y. (2013). A Truncated Receptor-Binding Domain of MERS-CoV Spike Protein Potently Inhibits MERS-CoV Infection and Induces Strong Neutralizing Antibody Responses: Implication for Developing Therapeutics and Vaccines. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0081587"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9379","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01277-13","article-title":"The Receptor Binding Domain of the New Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Maps to a 231-Residue Region in the Spike Protein That Efficiently Elicits Neutralizing Antibodies","volume":"87","author":"Mou","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2015.09.073","article-title":"Long-term immunogenicity and safety of an investigational herpes zoster subunit vaccine in older adults","volume":"34","author":"Chlibek","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiu606","article-title":"Safety and Immunogenicity of an Adjuvanted Herpes Zoster Subunit Candidate Vaccine in HIV-Infected Adults: A Phase 1\/2a Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Study","volume":"211","author":"Berkowitz","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"121","article-title":"Comparison between a conventional subunit vaccine and the MF59-adjuvanted subunit influenza vaccine in the elderly: An evaluation of the safety, tolerability and immunogenicity","volume":"50","author":"Sindoni","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Prev. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"(2021, January 04). About the Oxford COVID-19 Vaccine. Available online: https:\/\/www.research.ox.ac.uk\/Article\/2020-07-19-the-oxford-covid-19-vaccine."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"(2021, January 04). Convidicea (Ad5-nCoV) Vaccine Description. Available online: https:\/\/www.precisionvaccinations.com\/vaccines\/convidicea-ad5-ncov-vaccine."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"(2021, January 04). Pfizer and BioNTech Choose Lead mRNA Vaccine Candidate against COVID-19 and Commence Pivotal Phase 2\/3 Global Study. Available online: https:\/\/www.pfizer.com\/news\/press-release\/press-release-detail\/pfizer-and-biontech-choose-lead-mrna-vaccine-candidate-0."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"(2021, January 04). Sinovac\u2019s Coronavac\u2122, SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine (Vero Cell), Inactivated, Announces Approval for Phase I\/II Clinical Trial in Adolescents and Children. Available online: https:\/\/www.biospace.com\/article\/releases\/sinovac-s-coronavac-sars-cov-2-vaccine-vero-cell-inactivated-announces-approval-for-phase-i-ii-clinical-trial-in-adolescents-and-children\/."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1920","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2022483","article-title":"An mRNA Vaccine against SARS-CoV-2\u2014Preliminary Report","volume":"1","author":"Jackson","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Eng. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"(2021, January 04). Ad26.COV2-S (Janssen COVID-19) Vaccine. Available online: https:\/\/www.precisionvaccinations.com\/vaccines\/ad26cov2-s-janssen-covid-19-vaccine."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd.2017.111","article-title":"Opportunities and challenges in phenotypic drug discovery: An industry perspective","volume":"16","author":"Moffat","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-6296(02)00126-1","article-title":"The price of innovation: New estimates of drug development costs","volume":"22","author":"DiMasi","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Health Econ."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd1202","article-title":"Target discovery","volume":"2","author":"Lindsay","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd2132","article-title":"Drugs, their targets and the nature and number of drug targets","volume":"5","author":"Imming","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"458","article-title":"Lead Discovery and Lead Optimization: A Useful Strategy in Molecular Modification of Lead Compound in Analog Design","volume":"2","author":"Patidar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Drug Design Discov."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1002\/jmr.744","article-title":"A new strategy for improved secondary screening and lead optimization using high-resolution SPR characterization of compound-target interactions","volume":"18","author":"Huber","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Mol. Recognit."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"Faqi, A.S. (2012). A Comprehensive Guide to Toxicology in Preclinical Drug Development, Elsevier. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Honek, J. (2017). Preclinical Research in Drug Development, Honek Communications Consulting & Medical Writing."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"FDA (2020, November 30). Step 3: Clinical Research, Available online: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/patients\/drug-development-process\/step-3-clinical-research."}],"container-title":["Vaccines"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-393X\/9\/2\/120\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:19:33Z","timestamp":1760159973000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-393X\/9\/2\/120"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,3]]},"references-count":75,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2]]}},"alternative-id":["vaccines9020120"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/vaccines9020120","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-393X"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2076-393X"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,3]]}}}