{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T21:37:16Z","timestamp":1773265036989,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":107,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,2]],"date-time":"2021-10-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1633132800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The thymus is the main lymphoid organ that regulates the immune and endocrine systems by controlling thymic cell proliferation and differentiation. The gland is a primary lymphoid organ responsible for generating mature T cells into CD4+ or CD8+ single-positive (SP) T cells, contributing to cellular immunity. Regarding humoral immunity, the thymic plasma cells almost exclusively secrete IgG1 and IgG3, the two main complement-fixing effector IgG subclasses. Deformity in the thymus can lead to inflammatory diseases. Hassall\u2019s corpuscles\u2019 epithelial lining produces thymic stromal lymphopoietin, which induces differentiation of CDs thymocytes into regulatory T cells within the thymus medulla. Thymic B lymphocytes produce immunoglobulins and immunoregulating hormones, including thymosin. Modulation in T cell and naive T cells decrement due to thymus deformity induce alteration in the secretion of various inflammatory factors, resulting in multiple diseases. Influenza virus activates thymic CD4+ CD8+ thymocytes and a large amount of IFN\u03b3. IFNs limit virus spread, enhance macrophages\u2019 phagocytosis, and promote the natural killer cell restriction activity against infected cells. Th2 lymphocytes-produced cytokine IL-4 can bind to antiviral INF\u03b3, decreasing the cell susceptibility and downregulating viral receptors. COVID-19 epitopes (S, M, and N proteins) with \u226590% identity to the SARS-CoV sequence have been predicted. These epitopes trigger immunity for antibodies production. Boosting the immune system by improving thymus function can be a therapeutic strategy for preventing virus-related diseases. This review aims to summarize the endocrine-immunoregulatory functions of the thymus and the underlying mechanisms in the prevention of COVID-19.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9101119","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,11]],"date-time":"2021-10-11T01:59:47Z","timestamp":1633917587000},"page":"1119","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Thymus Gland: A Double Edge Sword for Coronaviruses"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1614-0211","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ebtesam A.","family":"Al-Suhaimi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biology Department, College of Science, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, P.O. Box 1982, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Meneerah A.","family":"Aljafary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biology Department, College of Science, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, P.O. Box 1982, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fadwa M.","family":"Alkhulaifi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biology Department, College of Science, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, P.O. Box 1982, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6692-3161","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hanan A.","family":"Aldossary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Epidemic Diseases Research Department, Institute for Research and Medical Consultations, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, P.O. Box 1982, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4007-1984","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thamer","family":"Alshammari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Genetic Research Department, Institute for Research and Medical Consultations, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, P.O. Box 1982, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6342-6573","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ayman","family":"AL-Qaaneh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Genetic Research Department, Institute for Research and Medical Consultations, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, P.O. Box 1982, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Clinical Pharmacy Services Division, Pharmacy Services Department, Johns Hopkins Aramco Healthcare (JHAH), Dhahran 31311, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Razan","family":"Aldahhan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Stem Cell Research Department, Institute for Research and Medical Consultations, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, P.O. Box 1982, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zahra","family":"Alkhalifah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Genetic Research Department, Institute for Research and Medical Consultations, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, P.O. Box 1982, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zagit Z.","family":"Gaymalov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Earlystage O\u00dc, Lasnam\u00e4e Linnaosa, Sepapaja tn 6, Harju Maakond, 15551 Tallinn, Estonia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Adeeb","family":"Shehzad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Pharmacy Research Department, Institute for Research and Medical Consultations (IRMC), Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, P.O. Box 1982, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Abdelgadir M.","family":"Homeida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biology Department, College of Science, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, P.O. 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