{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,26]],"date-time":"2026-04-26T03:47:19Z","timestamp":1777175239634,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,27]],"date-time":"2021-10-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1635292800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are a major global health issue. Approximately 250 million new cases of STDs occur each year globally. Currently, only three STDs (human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis A, and hepatitis B) are preventable by vaccines. Vaccines for other STDs, including gonorrhea, chlamydia, and syphilis, await successful development. Currently, all of these STDs are treated with antibiotics. However, the efficacy of antibiotics is facing growing challenge due to the emergence of bacterial resistance. Therefore, alternative therapeutic approaches, including the development of vaccines against these STDs, should be explored to tackle this important global public health issue. Mass vaccination could be more efficient in reducing the spread of these highly contagious diseases. Bacterial outer membrane vesicle (OMV) is a potential antigen used to prevent STDs. OMVs are released spontaneously during growth by many Gram-negative bacteria. They present a wide range of surface antigens in native conformation that possess interesting properties such as immunogenicity, adjuvant potential, and the ability to be taken up by immune cells, all of which make them an attractive target for application as vaccines against pathogenic bacteria. The major challenge associated with the use of OMVs is its fragile structure and stability. However, a particulate form of the vaccine could be a suitable delivery system that can protect the antigen from degradation by a harsh acidic or enzymatic environment. The particulate form of the vaccine can also act as an adjuvant by itself. This review will highlight some practical methods for formulating microparticulate OMV-based vaccines for STDs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9111245","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,27]],"date-time":"2021-10-27T23:24:42Z","timestamp":1635377082000},"page":"1245","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Potential Applications of Microparticulate-Based Bacterial Outer Membrane Vesicles (OMVs) Vaccine Platform for Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs): Gonorrhea, Chlamydia, and Syphilis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Christiane","family":"Chbib","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Larkin University, Miami, FL 33169, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sarthak M.","family":"Shah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rikhav P.","family":"Gala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fraunhofer USA, Center Mid-Atlantic, Biotechnology Division, Newark, DE 19702, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mohammad N.","family":"Uddin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2021, June 11). 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