{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,6]],"date-time":"2026-05-06T14:19:53Z","timestamp":1778077193569,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":257,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,12]],"date-time":"2021-11-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1636675200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Deanship of Scientific Research at 878 Umm Al-Qura University","award":["20-SCI-4-13-0001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20-SCI-4-13-0001"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Respiratory viruses represent a major public health concern, as they are highly mutated, resulting in new strains emerging with high pathogenicity. Currently, the world is suffering from the newly evolving severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). This virus is the cause of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), a mild-to-severe respiratory tract infection with frequent ability to give rise to fatal pneumonia in humans. The overwhelming outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 continues to unfold all over the world, urging scientists to put an end to this global pandemic through biological and pharmaceutical interventions. Currently, there is no specific treatment option that is capable of COVID-19 pandemic eradication, so several repurposed drugs and newly conditionally approved vaccines are in use and heavily applied to control the COVID-19 pandemic. The emergence of new variants of the virus that partially or totally escape from the immune response elicited by the approved vaccines requires continuous monitoring of the emerging variants to update the content of the developed vaccines or modify them totally to match the new variants. Herein, we discuss the potential therapeutic and prophylactic interventions including repurposed drugs and the newly developed\/approved vaccines, highlighting the impact of virus evolution on the immune evasion of the virus from currently licensed vaccines for COVID-19.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9111317","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,14]],"date-time":"2021-11-14T20:52:28Z","timestamp":1636923148000},"page":"1317","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":41,"title":["Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Control between Drug Repurposing and Vaccination: A Comprehensive Overview"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8173-6073","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed A.","family":"Al-Karmalawy","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Horus University-Egypt, New Damietta 34518, Egypt"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Raya","family":"Soltane","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Basic Sciences, Adham University College, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 21955, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Tunis El Manar University, Tunis 1068, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ayman","family":"Abo Elmaaty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Port Said University, Port Said 42526, Egypt"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mohamed A.","family":"Tantawy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hormones Department, Medical Research and Clinical Studies Research Institute, National Research Centre, Dokki 12622, Egypt"},{"name":"Stem Cells Laboratory, Center of Excellence for Advanced Sciences, National Research Centre, Dokki 12622, Egypt"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Samar A.","family":"Antar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Horus University-Egypt, New Damietta 34518, Egypt"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9466-7863","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Galal","family":"Yahya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microbiology and Immunology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0939-9890","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amani","family":"Chrouda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, College of Science Al-Zulfi, Majmaah University, Al-Majmaah 11932, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Laboratory of Interfaces and Advanced Materials, Faculty of Sciences, Monastir University, Monastir 5000, Tunisia"},{"name":"Institute of Analytical Sciences, UMR CNRS-UCBL-ENS 5280, 5 Rue la Doua, CEDEX, 69100 Villeurbanne, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rami Adel","family":"Pashameah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Basic Sciences, Adham University College, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 21955, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Muhamad","family":"Mustafa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Deraya University, Minia 61111, Egypt"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mobarak","family":"Abu Mraheil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Institute of Medical Microbiology, Justus-Liebig University, 35392 Giessen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2878-5714","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed","family":"Mostafa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Institute of Medical Microbiology, Justus-Liebig University, 35392 Giessen, Germany"},{"name":"Center of Scientific Excellence for Influenza Viruses, National Research Centre, Dokki 12622, Egypt"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1038\/39218","article-title":"A pandemic warning?","volume":"389","author":"Claas","year":"1997","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"El Gizawy, H.A., Boshra, S.A., Mostafa, A., Mahmoud, S.H., Ismail, M.I., Alsfouk, A.A., Taher, A.T., and Al-Karmalawy, A.A. 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